List of Amtrak rolling stock
Amtrak operates a fleet of passenger train rolling stock consisting of predominantly custom-built equipment. The active fleet includes some 240 diesel locomotives, 66 electric locomotives, 1,408 passenger cars and 20 Acela Express high-speed trainsets. Amtrak also operates 196 locomotives and railcars owned wholly by state partners.[1]
Current
Locomotives
Amtrak operates diesel, electric, and dual-mode (diesel or electric) locomotives. Its electric locomotives are confined to the Northeast Corridor and the Philadelphia to Harrisburg Main Line, dual-mode locomotives are only used in the Empire Corridor between Albany and New York, and the diesel locomotives are used in all other areas across in the United States.
Builder | Model | Thumbnail | Road numbers | Active fleet | Year | Power type | Owner | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Road power | ||||||||
GE | Dash 8-32BWH | ![]() | 500, 503–519 | 18 | 1991 | Diesel | Amtrak | 501 and 502 sold to Caltrans and renumbered 2051 and 2052. |
Genesis P40DC | ![]() | 814–818, 821, 822, 824, 830–832, 835, 837 | 13 | 1993 | 15 units rebuilt to P42 specifications are all that remain in service. All others are stored, sold, or scrapped. | |||
Genesis P42DC | 1–207 | 182 | 1996-2001 | Amtrak's main road diesel locomotive. | ||||
Genesis P32AC-DM | 700–717 | 18 | 1995 | Dual-mode | Used on New York City–Albany Empire Corridor. Operates as traditional diesel locomotive, except around NY Penn Station where it runs on third rail electricity. | |||
Siemens | Sprinter ACS-64 | ![]() | 600–665, 667–670 | 67 | 2014 | Electric | Amtrak's main road electric locomotive. | |
Charger ALC-42 | ![]() | 300–424 | 15 (125) | 2021 | Diesel | To replace Genesis locomotives on long-distance services. To be delivered through 2024.[2][3] | ||
State-owned road power | ||||||||
GE | Dash 8-32BWH | ![]() | 2051, 2052 | 2 | 1991 | Diesel | Caltrans | Ex-Amtrak 501 and 502. |
EMD | F59PH | ![]() | 1810, 1859, 1869, 1893 | 4 | 1988 | NCDOT | Ex-GO Transit. Rebuilt for NCDOT in 2010. | |
1871, 1984 | 2 | 1990 | Ex-GO Transit. Rebuilt for NCDOT in 2016. | |||||
F59PHI | ![]() | 1755, 1797 | 2 | 1998 | ||||
2001–2009 | 9 | 1994 | Caltrans | |||||
2010–2015 | 6 | 2001 | ||||||
Siemens | Charger SC-44 | ![]() | 1400–1401, 1403–1408 | 8 | 2016 | WSDOT | 1402 destroyed in 2017 derailment. Replaced by 1408.[4] | |
2101–2124 | 24 | Caltrans | ||||||
4601–4633 | 33 | IDOT | ||||||
Non-Revenue/Switcher Locomotives | ||||||||
EMD | SW1 | ![]() | 737 | 1 | 1941 | Diesel | Amtrak | Ex-PC, NYC.[5] |
GE | GE 80-ton switcher | 1000 | 1 | 1951 | Ex-USAX. | |||
1100 | 1 | 1952 | ||||||
EMD | SW1000R | ![]() | 794–796, 798 | 4 | 1952 | Ex-BO, MKT, PLE, SOO. | ||
EMD | GP38H-3 | ![]() | 520–527 | 8 | 1966 | Ex-GO Transit GP40TCs. | ||
EMD | MP15 | ![]() | 530–539 | 10 | 1970 | Ex-PLE. | ||
EMD | SW1500 | 540, 541 | 2 | 1970 | Ex-CSX. | |||
EMD | SW1001 | 569 | 1 | 1974 | Ex-CSX. | |||
EMD | GP38-3 | 720–724 | 5 | 1976 | Ex-CS, CSX, PLE. | |||
MPI | GP15D | 570–579 | 10 | 2004 | ||||
MP14B | ![]() | 590 | 1 | 2010 | Diesel Genset | |||
MP21B | 591 | 1 | ||||||
MP14B | 592, 593 | 2 | 2013 | |||||
National Railway Equipment | 2GS12B | ![]() | 597, 599 | 2 | 2014 | Converted from SW1000R. | ||
792, 793 | 2 | 2018 | ||||||
Sources:[1][6][7][8] |
Passenger cars
As of late 2018, Amtrak rostered 1,408 passenger cars of various types. These include coaches, lounges, dining cars, sleeping cars, baggage cars and crew/dormitory cars.[1]: 48–51
Builder | Model | Thumbnail | Road Numbers | In service | Year built | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Budd Company | Metroliner Cab Control Car | ![]() | 9632–9651 | 15 | 1967 | Former Metroliner EMU coaches converted to cab control coaches. Typically used on Keystone Service, Hartford Line and Valley Flyer. |
Amfleet I | 43346–48196, 81500–82999 | 457 | 1975 | Coach, business, café and business/café configurations. | ||
Amfleet II | 25000–28024 | 138 | 1981 | Coach and lounge configurations. | ||
Pullman Standard | Superliner I | ![]() | 31000–38034 | 243 | 1979 | Bi-level cars. Coach, coach/baggage, sleeper, diner and lounge/café configurations. |
Bombardier | Superliner II | 32070–39046 | 185 | 1993 | Bi-level cars. Coach, sleeper, deluxe sleeper, diner, lounge/café, and transition sleeper configurations. | |
Bombardier | Horizon | ![]() | 53501–58108 | 92 | 1988 | Coach, café and business/café configurations. |
Budd Company | Viewliner (prototype) | ![]() | 8400 | 1 | 1987 | 2 sleepers and 1 diner. Diner in service. One sleeper stored, one converted into inspection car (#10004 American View). |
Morrison-Knudsen | Viewliner I | 62000–62049 | 48 | 1995 | All sleepers. | |
CAF | Viewliner II | 61000–69009 | 130 | 2015 | Sleeper, diner, baggage/dormitory and baggage configurations. | |
Alstom | Surfliner | ![]() | 6300–6908 | 39 | 2000 | Bi-level cars. Amtrak California Pacific Surfliner coaches. |
EMD | Non-Powered Control Unit | ![]() | 406, 90200–90413 | 21 | 1977 | EMD F40PH locomotives converted into cab control and baggage cars.[9] Two units painted in Amtrak Cascades scheme. Three units leased to and painted in Caltrans scheme. 406 equipped with HEP generator. |
Johnstown America | Autorack | ![]() | 9200–9279 | 80 | 2005 | Used on the Auto Train. |
State-owned cars | ||||||
Morrison-Knudsen | California Car | ![]() | 8001–8814 | 66 | 1996 | Bi-level cars. Coach, coach/baggage, cab/coach, and café configurations. Owned by Caltrans, used on Amtrak California routes. |
Alstom | Surfliner | ![]() | 6351–6965 | 22 | 2002 | Bi-level cars. Coach, café/coach business-class, and coach/baggage/cab configurations. Owned by Caltrans, used on Amtrak California routes. |
St Louis Car Company / Morrison-Knudsen | Comet IB | ![]() | 5001–5014 | 14 | 1968 | Single-level cars, all configured as coaches. Ex-NJ Transit coaches rebuilt 2011–2013. Owned by Caltrans, used on San Joaquins. |
North Carolina Fleet | ![]() | 400001–400205 | 20 | 1952–1965 | Single-level cars, coach and baggage/lounge/bike/vending configurations. Owned by NCDOT, used on Piedmont route. | |
EMD | Non-Powered Control Unit | ![]() | 90253, 90340 | 2 | 1977 | EMD F40PH locomotives converted into control cars. Purchased by ODOT from Amtrak in 2009. |
101–105 | 5 | 2019 | EMD F59PH locomotives converted into control cars. Owned by NCDOT, used on Piedmont route. | |||
Siemens Mobility | Venture | ![]() | 29 (97) | 2022 | Owned by Amtrak Midwest (states of Illinois, Michigan, Missouri, and Wisconsin). Configured as 34 two-car married pairs, 26 single cars, 3 single cab cars.[10] |
Trainsets
Builder | Model | Thumbnail | Road numbers | In service | Year introduced | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Bombardier/Alstom | Acela Express | ![]() | 2000–2039 | 40 | 1999 | Electric locomotive; each one is semi-permanently coupled to each end of a trainset. |
![]() | 3200–3559 | 120 | Unpowered trailer cars; six (four business class, one first class and one cafe) per trainset. 20 trainsets in total. | |||
Talgo | Series 8 | ![]() | 7110–7911 | 26 | 2013 | 2 trainsets used on Amtrak Cascades, owned by the Oregon Department of Transportation. Unpowered; 13 cars per trainset. |
Alstom | Avelia Liberty | ![]() | 2100–2155 | 0 (56) | (2023) | Not yet in service. 56 electric locomotives on order.[11][12][13] |
3250–3927 | 0 (252) | Not yet in service. 28 nine-car unpowered trainsets. | ||||
Siemens Mobility | Venture | ![]() | 0 (49) | (2023) | Not yet in service. 7 seven-car unpowered trainsets for San Joaquins. Trainset will include a cab car. Owned by Caltrans. | |
0 (48) | (2026) | Not yet in service. 8 six-car unpowered trainsets for Amtrak Cascades. Trainset will include a cab car. | ||||
Airo (Charger ALC-42E) | 0 (65) | Not yet in service. Diesel-electric locomotive. Motors can be powered by energy generated by diesel engine, drawn from overhead lines by Airo power car, or by charge in Airo battery car. | ||||
Airo (Venture) | 0 (156) | Not yet in service. 26 six-car trainsets for Carolinian, Downeaster, Keystone Service, Palmetto, Pennsylvanian and Vermonter. Trainset will include cab car and power car, which will draw power from overhead lines and feed to motors. | ||||
0 (192) | Not yet in service. 24 eight-car trainsets for Northeast Regional. Trainset will include cab car and power car, which will draw power from overhead lines and feed to motors. | |||||
0 (90) | Not yet in service. 15 six-car trainsets for Adirondack, Empire Service, Ethan Allen Express and Maple Leaf. Trainset will include cab car and battery car that will supply electricity to motors. | |||||
Stadler | FLIRT | 0 (4 sets) | (2027) | Not yet in service. Hydrogen multiple units for use on the San Joaquins.[14][15] |
Business cars
- Three of Amtrak's business cars on the back of the Blue Water in 2011: the Pacific Cape, Ocean View, and Beech Grove.
- Amtrak's American View business and inspection car
In addition to its regular fleet, Amtrak owns several business and track geometry cars:[16][17]
- #10001 Beech Grove, an "Amfleet office car"[18] used for official business by the Amtrak president and other VIPs. This unique car has an open observation platform, lounge seating area, dining room, kitchen and 2 sleeping accommodations, as well as has lights, GPS equipment and a camera to inspect tracks for defects. The car was repurposed in 2020 with a LiDAR Laser Measurement System.
- #10002 Corridor Clipper, an Amfleet I-based track geometry car. It is periodically attached to the end of a diesel or electric revenue-running train or is hauled by a locomotive only. The car previously had a special pantograph that was used to test and measure overhead lines.
- #10003, an unnamed Acela-based track geometry car. It is periodically inserted into an Acela Express consist between a power car (locomotive) and the nearest end car, resulting in a train with two power cars and seven intermediate cars rather than the normal six.[19]
- #10004 American View, a Viewliner-based "inspection car"[20] with rear-facing seats and large glass window at the end of the car that allows passengers to observe the tracks. The car can also be used by maintenance crews to visually inspect the tracks for defects and by the Amtrak president and other executives for official purposes. Originally numbered #2301, the American View is one of the three prototype Viewliner cars and was the last passenger railcar produced by Budd.
- #10005, an unnamed catenary measurement car. Like car #10002 Corridor Clipper, this car has a special pantograph that is used to test and measure overhead lines.
- #10020 Pacific Bend, a heritage Pacific-series 10-6 sleeper formally used by Union Pacific, now converted for crew use on special trains. Four roomettes remain for staff use, five roomettes have been converted to storage areas and one has been converted into a shower. The bedrooms have been removed and replaced with a crew lounge.
- #10021 Pacific Cape, a heritage Pacific-series 10-6 sleeper now converted for crew use on special trains. It is usually used along with the Beech Grove for official business by the Amtrak president and other VIPs.
- #9800 Metroliner, a former Metroliner electric multiple unit cafe converted to be used as a first class conference car. Primarily used on charter services on the Northeast Corridor. The car is broken up into 3 areas, one end of the car has 12 business class seats in a 2+1 configuration, the middle has a cafe, and the other end has conference areas (a large private conference room with 8 seats around a large table, 2 medium-sized semi-private conference sections with 4 seats around a table and 2 small semi-private conference sections with 2 seats around a table).[21] The car at one time had cab controls that have since been removed
Former (Amtrak purchased)
This is a partial listing of locomotives and rolling stock formerly operated by Amtrak. This does not include equipment inherited from private railroads (see #Inherited)
Locomotives
- EMD F40PHR #315 leads the California Zephyr out of Tunnel #17 near Newcastle, California in 1995.
- EMD SDP40F #629 with the San Francisco Zephyr in 1978.
- GE E60 #604 at 30th Street Station in 1997.
- GE P30CH #700 at the Auto Train facility in Lorton in 1987.
- EMD AEM-7 #908 on the Northeast Corridor in 1980.
- Bombardier/Alstom HHP-8 #655 at Boston South Station in 2007.
Builder | Model | Road numbers | Years of service | Power type | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Road power | |||||
EMD | SDP40F | 500–649 | 1973–1987 | Diesel | Amtrak's first diesel locomotive purchase. Plagued with derailment problems. Most used to build F40PHR locomotives. |
GE | P30CH | 700–724 | 1975–1991 | Diesel | Amtrak's first diesel locomotive purchased with HEP generator, nicknamed "Pooch". Plagued with mechanical problems. |
EMD | F40PH | 200–229, 410–415 | 1976–2003 | Diesel | After retirement, many were converted to NPCUs. |
EMD | F40PHR | 230–409 | 1977–2003 | Diesel | Built with components from SDP40F locomotives. After retirement, many converted to NPCUs. |
EMD/Siemens | F69PHAC | 450–451 | 1989–1993 | Diesel | Built for the USDOT to test AC technology. Loaned to Amtrak, returned to EMD. |
GE | E60 | 950–975 | 1974–2003 | Electric | Plagued by derailment problems at high speed. |
Bombardier/Alstom | HHP-8 | 650–664 | 1999–2014 | Electric | Plagued by low reliability. All stored. Units renumbered to 680-694 to prevent confusion with ACS-64 units. |
EMD/ASEA | AEM-7 | 900–953 | 1978–2016 | Electric | As of July 2017, 16 units are stored in various locations. No. 929 and 938 sold to Caltrain. No. 928 and 942 sent to TTC. |
EMD | EMD F59PHI | 450–470 | 1998–2019 | Diesel | Used on Pacific Surfliner and Cascades routes. Sold to Metra. |
Switchers | |||||
ALCO | RS-1 | 44, 46, 47, 59, 62 | Diesel | ||
ALCO | RS-3 | 100–144 | Diesel | ||
ALCO | S-2 | 746 | Diesel | Ex-USAX | |
EMD | SW1 | 730–736, 738–745 | 1976 | Diesel | Ex-NYC, built 1947–1950. 737 remains in service. |
EMD | SSB1200 | 550–567 | 1984–2008 | Diesel | Ex-ATSF. Acquired in exchange for 18 EMD SDP40F units. |
EMD | CF7 | 575–599 | 1984–2003 | Diesel | |
EMD | GP7 | 760–762, 769, 771–784 | Diesel | ||
EMD | GP9 | 763–768, 770 | Diesel | ||
EMD | GP40 | 650–664 | 1991–1993 | Diesel | Leased, later returned. |
EMD | SW8 | 1, 3, 747–750 | Diesel | ||
GE | 45t | 7 | Diesel | Ex-USAX, Beech Grove Shops switcher. | |
GE | 65t | 5, 6 | Diesel | Ex-USAX. Beech Grove Shops switchers. | |
Railpower | GG20B | 599 | 2006–2008 | Diesel | Leased, later returned. |
Trainsets

Builder | Model | Road numbers | Years of service | Power type | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
ANF | Turboliner | 58–69 | 1973–1995 | Gas turbine | Semi-permanently coupled trainset. |
Rohr | Turboliner | 150–163 | 1976–2002 | Gas turbine | Semi-permanently coupled trainset. |
Bombardier | LRC | 38, 39 (power cars) | 1980–1982 | Diesel | Leased by Amtrak, returned to Bombardier.[22] |
Talgo | Series VI | 7100–7905 (52 cars) | 1998–2020 | Unpowered (locomotive-hauled) | Five 13-car trainsets for Amtrak Cascades, Two trainsets (Mt. Hood and Mt. Olympus) owned by Amtrak, three (Mt. Adams, Mt. Baker and Mt. Rainier) owned by WSDOT. Mt. Adams trainset destroyed in 2017 Washington train derailment, others retired on recommendation of the NTSB.[23][24] |
Former (inherited)
Locomotives
- EMD E9 "A" and "B" units with the San Joaquin in 1974.
- EMD FP7 leading the San Francisco Zephyr in 1975.
- Amtrak GG1 #904 westbound at Harrison, New Jersey in June 1975
- EMD FL9 #486 at the Grand Central Terminal in 1991.
- EMD E8A #315 leading the Illinois Zephyr in 1975.
Amtrak inherited numerous locomotives from private railroads on its formation in 1971. Most of these were retired by the end of the decade, if not earlier. These locomotives are enumerated below, with their original owners.[25]
Builder | Model | Road numbers | Years of service | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|
EMD | F3A | Ex-BN, NP | ||
EMD | F3B | 155–156 | 1971–1975 | Ex-BN, NP |
660–665 | Ex-BN | |||
EMD | F7A | 100–107 | 1971–c. 1977 | Ex-BN, NP |
EMD | F7B | 150–151 | 1971–c. 1977 | Ex-BN, GN |
152–154 | Ex-BN, NP | |||
160–164 | Ex-SP | |||
EMD | FP7A | 110–123 | 1971–c. 1975 | Ex-SP |
EMD | E8A | 200–210 | 1971–c. 1979 | Ex-BO |
211–212 | Ex-BO, CO | |||
213–223 | Ex-RFP | |||
224–225 | Ex-LN | |||
226–227 | Ex-LN, SLSF | |||
230–231 | Ex-SCL, FWD | |||
232–237 | Ex-SCL, ACL | |||
238–245 | Ex-SCL, ACL, MKT | |||
246–254 | Ex-SCL, SAL | |||
255–276 | Ex-PC, NYC, PRR | |||
277–324 | Ex-PC, PCC | |||
325–331 | Ex-UP | |||
332–352 | Ex-BN, CBQ | |||
436 | Ex-IC | |||
EMD | E8B | 370–374 | 1971–c. 1979 | Ex-UP |
EMD | E9A | 400–403 | 1971–1980 | Ex-BO |
404 | Ex-SCL, SAL | |||
405–410, 434–435 | Ex-MILW | |||
411–433 | Ex-UP | |||
EMD | E9B | 446, 453–470 | 1971–1980 | Ex-UP |
450–452, 471–472 | Ex-MILW | |||
EMD | FL9 | 231–242 | 1971–c. 1996 | Dual-mode. Ex-PC, CR, NH |
GE | E44 | 1971–mid 1980s | Ex-PC, PRR | |
GE | GG1 | 900-929 | 1971–1980 | Ex-PC, PRR |
Trainsets and multiple units
- Budd RDC #15 on a Black Hawk service in 1975.
- Budd Metroliner cab car #880 leading a Metroliner service in 1980.
Builder | Model | Road numbers | Original owner | Years of service | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
UAC | TurboTrain | 50–53 | 1971-1976 | Gas turbine trainset. Ex-USDOT via NYC, PC | |
Budd | RDC | 10–20, 27–29, 36 | NH via PC | Diesel multiple unit | |
30–32, 40–42 | Ex-BN, NP | ||||
34 | Ex-PC, NYC | ||||
43 | Ex-BN, GN | ||||
Budd | Metroliner | 800–830, 850–869, 880–889 | PC | 1971-1988 | Electric multiple unit. 860 preserved. Many remain active as de-motored cab cars. |
Passenger cars
Builder | Model | Road numbers | Years of service |
---|---|---|---|
Various | Baggage cars | 1000 series | 1971–2017 |
Budd Company / American Car & Foundry Pullman Standard / St Louis Car Company | Sleeping cars | 2000 series | 1971–2007 |
Lounge cars | 3000 series | 1971–2000 | |
Coach cars | 4000–7000 series | 1971–2002 | |
Dining cars | 8000 series | 1971–2017 | |
Budd Company / American Car & Foundry Pullman Standard | Dome cars | 9000 series | 1971–2019 |
Budd Company | High Level cars | 9000 series 39000 series | 1971–2018 |
See also
- Amtrak paint schemes
- Budd SPV-2000, Connecticut-owned diesel multiple units which Amtrak operated in the 1980s–1990s
References
- "Amtrak Five Year Equipment Asset Line Plan" (PDF). Amtrak. January 18, 2019. Retrieved May 14, 2020.
- "Amtrak to Improve National Network with New Locomotives" (Press release). Amtrak. December 21, 2018. Archived from the original on January 26, 2021. Retrieved December 23, 2018.
- Johnston, Bob (February 8, 2022). "Amtrak to order 50 more long-distance Siemens Chargers". Trains. Retrieved April 2, 2022.
- Lanier, Ryan (July 14, 2020). "The WSDOT Blog - Washington State Department of Transportation: An update on Amtrak Cascades as we move through the summer". The WSDOT Blog - Washington State Department of Transportation. Retrieved July 21, 2020.
- "Amtrak EMD SW1 #737". TrainWeb. November 4, 2014. Retrieved May 15, 2020.
- "Motive Power Roster". On Track On Line. November 1, 2018. Retrieved November 6, 2018.
- Sutton, Harry; Warner, David. "On Track On Line - Amtrak Motive Power Roster". on-track-on-line.com. Retrieved September 28, 2018.
- "Amtrak By the Numbers: Updates". On Track On Line. May 1, 2020. Retrieved May 15, 2020.
- Egebrecht, Mark (December 30, 2011). "The "Cabbage,"Amtrak's Recycled F40". Railroad.net. Archived from the original on February 24, 2016. Retrieved September 26, 2013.
- Johnston, Bob (February 2, 2022). "First look: Siemens Venture coaches debut for Amtrak". Trains News Wire.
- "Amtrak selects Alstom for Northeast Corridor train contract". Railway Gazette International. September 23, 2015. Retrieved September 23, 2015.
- "Amtrak orders Alstom trains for Northeast Corridor". International Railway Journal. August 26, 2016.
- "The Next generation of Amtrak High Speed trains". Amtrak. August 26, 2016. Retrieved August 26, 2016.
- Fender, Keith (September 21, 2022). "California orders 29 hydrogen trains for inter-city services". International Railway Journal. Retrieved September 30, 2022.
- "California Orders 29 HFC Trains for Intercity Services (UPDATED)". Railway Age. September 27, 2022. Retrieved September 30, 2022.
- Warner, David; Simon, Elbert (2011). Amtrak by the Numbers: A Comprehensive Passenger Car and Motive Power Roster, 1971-2011. White River Productions. ISBN 978-1932804126.
- Warner, David (November 1, 2018). "On Track On Line - Amtrak Passenger Equipment Roster - Rolling Stock". on-track-on-line.com. Retrieved December 18, 2018.
- "AMTK 10001". Archived from the original on February 18, 2015. Retrieved April 11, 2014.
- "AMTK10003: Acela Inspection Car". Archived from the original on December 4, 2002. Retrieved September 10, 2010.
- "American View (AMTK 10004)". Retrieved April 11, 2014.
- "Search Results – 9800". Railpictures.net. Retrieved April 11, 2014.
- Simon, Elbert; Warner, David C. (2011). Amtrak by the numbers: a comprehensive passenger car and motive power roster, 1971-2011. Kansas City, Missouri: White River Productions. p. 99. ISBN 978-1-932804-12-6.
- Lindblom, Mike (May 22, 2019). "WSDOT to replace its Talgo railcars like those in the 2017 Amtrak crash near DuPont 'as soon as possible'". Retrieved July 7, 2020.
- Warner, David (July 1, 2020). "On Track On Line - Amtrak Trainset Roster". on-track-on-line.com. Retrieved July 7, 2020.
- "All-Time Amtrak Diesel Locomotive Roster as of 8-29-90". August 29, 1990. Retrieved November 19, 2011.
External links
