Arnaud-Michel d'Abbadie

Until these twelve years, Arnaud, just like Antoine, was educated by a governess. He then entered the Lycée Henri-IV in Paris. Arnauld had a great facility to learn languages and spoke perfect English, Latin and Greek.

Audaux - le château

At seventeen, his friends introduced him to Freemasonry as a benevolent philanthropic society. Arnaud therefore approached this sect, but on the day of the initiation he is asked to commit himself under the seal of an oath not to reveal the secrets of the sect. It was a revelation for him:

"If these men hide, it is because they are guilty. Only those who are ashamed of their deeds flee from the light."..

So he refused to commit himself to this dubious oath.[6]

Around the age of twenty, Arnaud wanted to engage militarily , because the colonization of Algeria fascinated him. However, his mother is adamantly opposed to him heading for a military career. To calm his ambitions, she sent him to Audaux in the Basque Country, on the lands of his ancestors. Arnauld travels the Basque Country and learns Basque. He lives with his brother Antoine in the castle of Audaux.[7]

Since filial respect forbids him to serve his country by force of arms and that he wants a life of action, Arnauld decides to carry the good name of the France otherwise. He knows his elder brother's plan to explore Abyssinia and decides to accompany him with the aim of discovering "the sources of the Nile".

Since November 1836 Antoine is on a scientific mission in Brazil; it measures the diurnal variations of the Earth's magnetic field at the request of François Arago. He accepted the proposal of his brother, who immediately left for Egypt to prepare the expedition. Antoine returned to France in September 1837; he submitted his observations to the Academy of Sciences, and on 1 October he embarked at Marseilles, with his scientific equipment, a secretary and a servant, for Egypt.

The early nineteenth century marked the rise of exploration of Africa by European countries. At first, they limited themselves to recognition of the great rivers. The geography, geodesy, geology and ethnography of vast African regions remained totally unknown, so the triangle within Harar-Mogadishu-Cape Guardafui on the Horn of Africa was white on the maps of 1840.

The territory to explore was huge. Abyssinia's four provinces represented more than 300,000 km2. Penetration conditions were extremely difficult:

• Wars were permanent; loyal allies one day could become enemies the next. Historians call it the Era of Princes or the Zemene Mesafint;
• religious wars were numerous (Catholic, Protestant, Muslim, Copt, animist, Jewish);
• the linguistic barriers were numerous (the Ethiopian alphabet has 267 characters with about thirty languages and dialects);
• endemic diseases were numerous: typhus, leprosy, ophthalmia;
• suspicious colonial powers hindered research: Briish, Italians, Germans and Turks suspected the Abbadie brothers of being spies.

Antoine and Arnaud d'Abbadie had very specific objectives:

• for Arnaud, the search for the source of the Nile;
• Antoine wanted to map the country, make geodetic and astronomical measurements. He invented new techniques and the maps he produced were surpassed only with the arrival of aerial and satellite photography;
• both brothers were devout Catholics from a family of lay abbots. Antoine said himself, without the events of 1793, he would sign:" Antoine d’Abbadie, abbé lai d’Arrast en Soule. We can see in them scientific crusaders. They also went to the Ethiopian mountains to help the declining Christian religion, threatened by a conquering Islam.[8] ;
• to travel to this hostile country, it was necessary to know its habits and customs. Before leaving France, they inquired as best they could and once there, their ethnological, linguistic, political observations were of the utmost importance;
• Arnaud wanted to reconstitute the former Christian empire of Ethiopia at the expense of Muslim occupation. In addition, he wanted to link this future state to the "protection" of France and thus thwart British colonization in East Africa.

The two brothers' characters were very different:

• Antoine, the scientist, was the most conciliatory in appearance, but by perseverance and patience he got what he wantex. He wore the clothes and looks of Ethiopians dedicated to study, a "memhir". He walked barefoot, for only lepers and Jews wore sandals. He worked assiduously to integrate and soon he was called "the man of the book";

• Arnaud was flamboyant, and stood out. He forged links with princes and warlords, participated in battles, came close to death many times and escaped thanks to exceptional courage. He forged a reputation as a soothsayer and advisor, but he was above all the friend and confidant of Dejazmach Goshu, prince of Gojjam, who considered him his son. Arnaud ws known as "ras Michael" (Arnaud's first name is Michel and he chose the name Michael, more familiar to Ethiopians).

Arnauld d'Abbadie

Arnauld d'Abbadie d'Arrast

In 1987 the historian, jurist, linguist and high Ethiopian official Berhanou Abebe published verses, distiches, dating from the Era of Princes, which refer to Arnauld ("ras Michael"): "I have not even provisions to offer them, / Let the earth devour me in the place of the men of ras Michael. / Is it clumsiness of embossing, or lack of swarf / That the scabbard of Michael's sword is not trimmed with pompom?".[9]

For tactical reasons Arnaud and Antoine travelled separately And spent little time together. The two brothers often wrote to each other, sent messengers, and sometimes walked of several days to spend only a few hours together. The only event that united them was Ennarea's expedition to the kingdom of Kaffa in search of the source of the White Nile.

In the exploration of Abyssinia, Arnaud prepared the ground for Antoine: first visits and approaches to the local lords etc., then Antoine did his work quietly. This tactic allows Antoine to gather valuable information on the geography, geology, archeology and natural history of Ethiopia.

Antoine d'Abbadie arrived in Egypt around October 16, 1837 and joined his brother Arnaud, already in Cairo. They stayed about two months in Cairo and became friends with Giuseppe Sapeto,[10] a Lazarist father and an English explorer named Richards. In December 1837 the two brothers, together with Father Sapeto, left for Massawa, the port of entry to Abyssinia.

Giusseppe Sapeto (1838).

When they arrived, rumor said that the Dejazmach Wube, governor of Tigray, the first region they needed to cross, had massacred a Protestant mission and prohibited all Europeans from entering the territory, on pain of death.

Richards realized the difficulties and returned to Cairo. Arnaud and Father Sapeto went to Adwa to speak directly with Dejazmach Wube. Antoine stayed in Massawa with their luggage.

The rumor was false; the Protestant mission was not massacred. It was imprisoned and expelled from Tigray, because the missionaries did not sufficiently respect the rites of the Ethiopian church and the Marian devotions. Arnaud used his diplomatic talent with Dejazmach Wube who allowed Father Sapeto to stay in Adwa and he and Antoine to cross Tigray without incident.

Arnaud and Antoine arrived in Gondar on May 28, 1838. As soon as Antoine began his work of geodesy and cartography he realized that his instruments are not suitable for precision work; He must return to France and obtain adequate instruments. He embarked at Massawa in July 1838 and returned twenty months later in February 1840.

In Gondar, Lik Atskou, a learned high dignitary, took Arnaud under his protection and presented him to Ali, ras of Begemder, who is the same age as Arnaud and has the same sporting passions; they become friends. Ali's mother, Menen Liben Amede, Ali's former regent, is a very powerful woman and she too accepts Arnaud.[11]

Through common sense advice and his honorable attitude, Arnaud acquired the reputation of being a doctor and a diviner. Among the important people who show him friendship were:

• Sahle Selassie, prince of Shewa, the richest province of Abyssinia, who promised him help to travel in Ennarea, a region where the brothers Abbadie think to find the source of the white Nile
• Dejazmach Goshu, prince of Gojjam under the suzerainty of Ras Ali, who became Arnaud's closest friend in Abyssinia. Dejazmach Goshu sent one of his sons, Lij Dori to Gondar to be treated by Arnaud, with the invitation to come to Gojjam. You have to go through the Gojjam to enter the Ennarea, so Arnaud accepts the invitation and travels south, towards Dambatch, with Lij Dori and his troops. It was during this trip that Arnaud witnessed his first battle (a warlord trying to kidnap Lidj Dori, to better negotiate a deal with Dejazmach Goshu) and, more importantly, Arnaud visited the "Eye of Abay" the source of the Blue Nile.

At the court of Dejazmach Goshu, Arnaud, thanks to his bravery and his military sense, was accepted as an adopted son by Dejazmach Goshu and his wife Waïzoro Sahaloa. He took part in a campaign against the Gallas and exchanged his geographer's clothes for those of an Ethiopian soldier.

On the death of Dejazmach Kenfu, governor of Dembiya, subservient to Ras Ali, a war of succession broke out. Ras Ali allied with Dejazmach Goshu and his son Birru against the sons of Dejazmach Kenfu. Arnaud took part in the Battle of Konzoula on October 4, 1839, during which Kinfu's sons were taken prisoner.[12]

Antoine was to return in February 1840. In January, Arnaud leaves the court of Goshu to wait for his brother in Massawa. Crossing the Tigray is not easy; the Dejazmach Wube is “difficult”, but Arnaud manages to cross it.

Antoine d'Abbadie arrived with his new geodesy instruments in Massawa in February 1840. The two brothers left for Adwa on February 12. The objective was to return to Gondar, where Antoine would do geodetic surveys for several months, while Arnaud went to Gojjam, to the court of Dejazmach Goshu. Then, together, they crossed the country of the Galla to reach the kingdom of Ennaréa where they thought they would find the source of the White Nile.[13]

Dej. Wube Illustrated by Alphonse-Marie-Adolphe de Neuville

They first needed to cross the Tigray. Its governor, the Dejazmach Wube, was very aggressive towards them. During their courtesy visit, Arnaud annoyed Wube who, under the effect of his consumption of mead, threatens to cut off his tongue, a hand and a foot. Arnaud had the choice between using his weapon, or accepting the punishment to save his brother's life. His courage impressed Wube, who reconsidered. He ordered Arnaud and Antoine to leave his territory immediately, and never return.[14]

In Adwa, the brothers separate; Arnaud, defying the prohibition of Dejazmach Wube, remained in Adwa with his horse, which was ailing; Antoine left for Massawa with the luggage and servants.

Antoine traveled around the Massawa region, using his new instruments to map it for several months. During a hunting accident shrapnel from a cartridge injured his eye. He was forced to leave for Aden, where he hoped to find a doctor.

Arnaud traveled to Digsa where he bonded with Bahar Negach. During this period, Arnaud increased his reputation, by succeedin in recovering several Christian women sold as slaves. When Arnaud received news of his brother's accident, he left for Aden. Unable to keep his horse, he senr it to the Prince of Joineville, who had helped Antoine to obtain his geodesy instruments.[15]

The trip to Aden was complicated, as the region was under English rule and Captain Haines believes that Arnaud and Antoine are spies for France.

When Arnaud arrives in Aden, Antoine, who had already left for Cairo for treatment, had left a message: they could try to reach the kingdom of Ennarea from the south, via Berbera, the region of Harar and the Shewa, or Prince Sahle Selassie would protect them.

Captain Haines

Once the two brothers arrived in Berbera the local potentates, under the influence of the English, blocked them. Antoine and Arnaud could not travel within the country. During their forced stay, they deepened their knowledge of languages, habits and customs; Antoine collected manuscripts and prepared a dictionary.

On January 15, 1841, they left Berbara, made too inhospitable by the actions of Captain Haines, to go to the port of Tadjoura. Their plan is always to join the kingdom of Ennarea from the south.

After three months of attempted negotiations, faced with pressure from Captain Haines, they abandoned the project and on May 12, 1841 left Djibouti for Yemen. The brothers were badly received in Yemen, because they were Christians.[16]Antoine returned to Massawa. Arnaud left on a mission to Jeddah then joined Antoine in August 1841.

They were still trying to cross the Tigray. Arnaud left alone for Adwa, stopping at Digsa and against all advice, visited the Dejazmach Wube. The political situation had changed. Wube was waging war against Ras Ali and allied with Dejazmach Goshu. Arnaud was received with great fanfare by Dejazmach Wube.

Thanks to the Dejazmach Wube's change of alliance, Arnaud could cross Tigray to go to Gojjam and Antoine could stay in Tigray and travel freely. He arrived in Adwa on January 2, 1842 and spent several months making geodetic measurements. Then, during a battle, the Dejazmach Wube was taken prisoner and the territory was in turmoil. Antoine was forced to find refuge for several weeks in a church in Adwa, then he escaped and went to Gondar.

In Gondar Antoine studies languages, collects manuscripts and makes geodesic triangulations (850 absolute landmarks for cartography). Towards the end of September he visits Lake Tana and in January-February the churches of Lalibela. Antoine left Gondar in February 1843 and left for Gojjam.

In the meantime, Arnaud, after leaving the Dejazmach Wube, went to Gondar where he learned of the victory of Ras Ali at the Battle of Dabra Tabor on February 13, 1842. He renewed his contacts with the Lik Atskou; the Waizoro Mannan and the Abuna.

In August 1842 Arnaud left Gondar to find the Dejazmach Goshu and his wife the Waïzoro Sahalou near Dorokoa. He also renewed his relations with Birru, the illegitimate son of Goshu, who was encamped with his army in the vicinity. Arnaud was totally involved in military life with Goshu and Birru.

In February 1843 the armies of Goshu and Birru met to fight Ras Ali. Antoine arrived on February 27. He was charged by the Abuna of Aksoum with a mediation project between Ras Ali and Dejazmach Goshu in order to avoid a confrontation. Despite Arnaud's intercession, the mission failed.

Antoine wanted to go back with Arnauld to the kingdom of Ennarea in search of the source of the White Nile. Given the military situation, Arnaud decided that he must stay with the Dejazmach Goshu. He believed that Goshu's influence over the Galla tribes could protect his brother on this dangerous expedition. So Antoine left alone, on May 19, 1843, for Mota to continue his research.

The campaign against Ras Ali began. The two armies fought in Wello until the end of June 1843. Arnaud was with Birru. The latter appreciated his qualities and forced him to stay by his side. He also wanted to separate Arnaud and Goshu, as he intended to take his father's place.

Arnaud and other devotees of Goshu trick to leave the camp of Birru in October 1843 and to go to the city of Mota, then to join the camp of Goshu.

At the beginning of 1844 he finally received news from his brother: Antoine was captive in Galla country, with Abba Bagibo, Prince of Ennarea.

Antoine, who left with a caravan in May 1843, arrived in Saka, in the kingdom of Limmu-Ennarea, on July 26. He was received in audience by King Abba Bagibo. The latter suspected Antoine, the first white man he had seen, of supernatural knowledge. He kept him at his court.

Antoine d'Abbadie observing the latitude at Bonga

The King of Kaffa wanted to see the white man and asks Abba Bagibo to send him. In exchange, he accepts an alliance that Bagibo had wanted for a long time. Antoine was sent by Abba Bagibo as a "marriage brother" to arrange the marriage of a king's daughter to Abba Bagibo. He was the first European to visit the Kaffa. He stayed 14 days in Bonga, then returned with Abba Bagibo on December 19, 1843. He feared he would never be able to return to Gojjam.

To recover his brother, Arnaud threatens to stop, with his army, all the caravans that want to enter the country of Abba Bagibo if his brother is not freed. On February 25, 1844, Antoine left Ennarea with a caravan and returned to Gojjam on April 10, 1844. He visited the source of the Abaïe and made geodetic measurements, then went to Baguina, to the Agew. He returned to Gondar on July 30, 1844.

In the meantime, Dejazmach Goshu was taken prisoner by the Dejazmach Syoum. At this time, Birru was plotting against his father. The vassals loyal to the Goshu were relieved of their positions of responsibility. Birru insisted on keeping Arnaud with him, promising him honors and territories if he accepted his suzerainty. Birru didn't want to let Arnaud go to Ras Ali to negotiate his father's release because he was afraid Arnaud would succeed.

Arnaud remained faithful to his friend Goshu and, dodging Birru's troops, arrived at Debre Tabor around May 15, 1844. He wanted to negotiate the release of Goshu with Ras Ali.

Ras Ali received "Ras Michael" with all the honors and Arnaud convinced him that the best political solution is to free Goshu. The problem was that Goshu was held back by Ali's mother, who had a strained relationship with her son. So Arnaud left for Gondar to negotiate directly with her. Arnaud was helped by Atse Yohannès (second husband of Menen Liben Amede).

Arnauld d’Abbadie d’Arrast "Ras Mikael"

Menen's grievance against Goshu was simply that he was Birru's father. The quarrel between Ali and Birru was irreconcilable and Birru's wife, Oubdar, was Menen's favorite daughter. She hated her son-in-law and wanted her daughter back, so she offered to trade her for Goshu's release. Birro, who secretly did not want his father's release, disrupted the negotiations in April 1844.

Thanks to the talents of Arnaud, the interventions of Lik Atskou and Ali the second attempt at negotiation was a success: Goshu was brought to Gondar, Menen forgave him and he was released. Goshouet Arnaud left for Debre Tabor to seal the reconciliation with Ras Ali.

The alliances changed again: Goshu and Syoum, under the suzerainty of Ali, allied against Birru and Wube. Birru increased his army up to 50,000 men. Factional warfare, as is often the case, consisted of many battles, with no winner or loser.

Arnaud returned to Gondar in July 1844 and was joined by Antoine on July 30. The latter left for Massawa on September 25 and returned around December 20. Gathered in Gondar, the two brothers analyzed the information in their possession on the possible hypotheses concerning the source of the White Nile. They believed that the Gibe, should unite with the Omo, which was, according to the opinion of Joseph-Pons d'Arnaud, the main tributary of the White Nile. Despite the dangers they planned a second trip to Ennaréa, to determine the source of the Gibe.

The two brothers left Gondar on February 18, 1845. Antoine left for Kouarato, on his way to the kingdom of Enarea, and Arnaud for the hot springs of Gur Amba. In Gur Amba, he met Walter Plowden,[17] an English explorer, who left his companion John Bell (future advisor to Tewodros II) at Mahadera Mariam. A fight between a man from Arnaud, who injures a native, poses a problem. There was a threat of a trial, with very serious consequences for Arnaud if the man died. To avoid danger, Arnaud and Plowden immediately left for Kouarata near Lake Tana to join Antoine, Goshu and Ali. They arrived on March 8, 1845.

In order to increase his military power, Goshu goes on tour with Arnaud to recruit deserters from Birru. They returned to Kouarata on April 8, 1845.

As for Antoine, he left with Ras Ali to go to Gojjam, because it took an escort of armed troops to cross the country, held by various factions opposed to Ali and Goshu. Antoine left Ali on April 14, 1845 and traveled south alone.

After leaving Ali, Antoine crossed Abaye again and, unescorted, arrived in the kingdom of Jimma in June. Ten days later, he crossed the border of the kingdom of Limma-Enarea and began to collect information on the rivers and their sources. He ended up recognizing in the Gibé the main tributary of the Omo and therefore of the White Nile. The source was in the Ababya forest north of Jimma.

The internal war between Ali, Goshu, Birru, Wube was in full swing. Arnaud participated very actively, with a lot of intelligence and bravery. He was so appreciated by Goshu that he offered to entrust him with the command of his armies. At the same time, Antoine called him to leave Goshu and come to Ennarea to seek the source of the White Nile.

Arnaud was torn between Goshu and his brother. After careful consideration, Arnaud announced to Goshu that he must join his brother, but after their expedition, he would come back to him. With sadness, Goshu gave his blessing to Arnaud's journey. It was also necessary to obtain Ali's authorization to join Antoine and Ali categorically refused to let Arnaud leave. He was too useful as a soldier.

However, Arnaud managed to convince Ali that if he entrusted him with a diplomatic mission to the prince of Enarea, Abba Bagibo, the result would be beneficial for Ali. The mission would also protect Arnaud against mistreatment by Abba Bagibo.

Arnaud left with a caravan travelling towards Ennarea. On the way he met Plowden and Bell and, together they crossed the Blue Nile to arrive in Oromo country. The two Englishmen carried rifles to protect themselves, but Arnaud advised them to get rid of all their firearms, because they provoked the covetousness of the Gallas, who would not hesitate to kill to obtain them, and if Plowden or Bell killed a Galla, all Europeans in the vicinity would be massacred.

After the crossing, Arnaud and the English separated, each with their Oromo protector; Arnauld's was Choumi, a Galla notable. Arnauld arrived in the village of Choumi on July 8, 1845.

Plowden did not follow Arnaud's instructions and a few days later, during a confrontation with a band of Gallas, he killed a man. The consequence was that all surrounding Oromo armed bands wanted to massacre any European on their territory. The road to Ennarea was now blocked for Arnauld.

Abba Bagibo on his throne

Stuck at Choumi, Arnaud could not return to Gojjam. He took advantage of this period of inactivity to learn the Galla languages. In the villages, Arnaud used his knowledge of customs and psychology to practice geomancy. He impresses and had the reputation of being a diviner.

On August 25, Arnaud received news from Antoine, who was at Abba Bagibo's. The latter wanted Arnaud to come to his house. Antoine said that an open road might be possible (but still very dangerous). Arnauld left with six men and crossed hostile countries.

On December 10, Arnaud crossed the Gibé and was safe in the kingdom of Limmou-Enaréa. He arrived in Saqqa, the main town of Enaréa, on December 15, 1845. Antoine was there.

Arnaud and Antoine had an audience with Abba Bagibo on December 20, 1845 and they asked him for permission to go to the source of the Gibé, under the pretext of making an offering to a local god. Abba Bagibo, a recent convert to Islam, also kept ancestral beliefs and he granted their request.

The two brothers left Saqqa on January 15 and arrived at the source on January 19, 1846.

Antoine and Arnaud were retained as "guests" by Abba Bagibo. He wanted to use Arnaud's "divinatory gift" for his own ends. Escape was almost impossible, and it was necessary to kill several guards, and cross deserts to avoid armed gangs. To get out, Arnaud planned to hide his brother in a caravan leaving the country, then escape himself and try to cross Ennarea and the Oromo country alone. But before he put the plan into execution, a whim of Abba Bagibo opened a way out: Abba Bagibo wanted a relative of Ras Ali as his wife and he entrusted Arnaud with negotiating. The two brothers left Saqqa with all the honors.

The return route was strewn with difficulties, quarrels between tribes; they were repeatedly threatened with death. They were forced to separate and only reunited in December 1846.

Arnaud and Antoine arrived in Gondar on April 20, 1847 along the eastern coast of Lake Tana. They learn that their younger brother, Charles is in Massawa and is looking for them. Indeed, their mother, without news of them for almost twelve years, is worried; she seeks advice and help from the Vatican and the Viceroy of Egypt, then sends her third son to Ethiopia.[18]

Antoine explored Agame and in 1848 that of Semien Gondar where he climbed Ras Dashen, the highest point in Ethiopia and the Simien Mountains. His elevation measurement (4,600 meters) is very close to the modern estimate (4,550 meters).

Unfortunately, Antoine's chronic ophthalmia makes him blind and he is forced to leave Abyssinia for good. On October 4, 1848, Antoine left Massawa and arrived in Cairo on November 3. Arnaud and Charles leave Massawa at the end of November. The three brothers returned to France at the beginning of 1849.

Since ancient times it has been known that the Nile results from the confluence of two rivers near Khartoum in Sudan, the Blue Nile and the White Nile. The origin of these two rivers remains a mystery until the eighteenth century. The goal of the brothers of Abbadie is to find the source of the White Nile, which some geographers (especially Joseph-Pons d'Arnaud) believe to be in the kingdom of Kaffa.

Nil bleu à partir de Gish Aber
Carte interactive

Le Nil bleu après le lac Tana
Carte interactive

The source of the Blue Nile was found by the Portuguese monk Pedro Páez[19],[20]in 1618 and visited by the Scottish explorer James Bruce in 1770. The river rises near Gish Abay, 100 kilometers southwest of Lake Tana, crosses the lake with a sensible current (as the Rhône crosses Lake Geneva), then exits at Baher Dar and makes a long loop towards Khartoum.

In 1840-1841 (the date is not specified), Arnaud is in the vicinity of the spring with the troops of Lidj Dori and he takes the time to visit it. He is the third European to visit the site. He gives a rather brief description.[21] Arnauld attaches little importance to the precise, more or less arbitrary, naming of the source of a river with multiple tributaries:

[…] "But I leave these questions, those which flow from them, and the theories which give rise to them, to those for whom they contain a first-rate interest; what mattered most to me in my visit to the famous springs of Abbaïe was the study of the populations that had to be crossed to reach them"..

In June-July 1844, Antoine was at the side of the army of Dejazmach Birru, (son of Dejazmach Goshu), who wanted to subdue two provinces that were near the source. Naturally, Antony wants to be the fifth European to visit the source: "The Eye of Abbaia" (the English explorer mentioned by Antony in his account is probably Charles Beke, who followed the course of the Blue Nile from Khartoum). Birru gives him an escort of fifteen spears to protect him in a hostile country. Antoine gives a detailed description of the source and the geographical measurements he makes.[22]

There remains the White Nile and its source. In April 1844, Antoine published his ideas and observations on the rivers that were the possible tributaries for the White Nile.[23][24][25][26][27][28][29]

Antoine and Arnaud d'Abbadie believe that the Omo River is the main tributary of the White Nile. Because the Ghibie River is the main tributary of the Omo, they consider the source of the Ghibie to be the source of the White Nile. After suffering many difficulties and dangers, on January 15, 1846, the two brothers arrived at the source of the Ghibie in the Babya forest north of Jimma. They planted the French flag and drank to the health of King Louis-Philippe I.[30] The coordinates of the source are: 7° 56' 37.68" N, 36° 54' 183 E28.[31]

Unfortunately, their basic assumption is wrong: the Omo is not a tributary of the White Nile.

As soon as Antoine announced the discovery[32],[33] his assertion was contested, notably by the English explorer Charles Beke.[34] Antoine d'Abbadie retaliated as soon as he became aware of Beke's communication.[35][36]

The published correspondence between Antoine d'Abbadie and Charles Beke is very hushed, but vitriolic. Beke analyzes Antony's observations in detail and indicates a number of plausible errors or inconsistencies. But the situation between the two men is such that Beke openly says that he believes that Antoine d'Abbadie never made his trip to the kingdom of Kaffa and that he invented everything. In protest, Beke returned his gold medal,[37] awarded by the Geographical Society in 1846, for his exploration of the Blue Nile.[38]

This trip to Ethiopia made a strong impression on Arnaud who became attached to this country.

[…] "The plateaus of upper Ethiopia, which were difficult for us to reach, became to me like a promised land. The oath that bound me to Dedjadj Birro encouraged me to make new efforts and, with the energy and self-sacrifice of our age, we decided to brave everything rather than give up our enterprise.[41]"..

He had only one idea in mind: to make his friend the Dejazmach Goshu the new emperor of Ethiopia and link their two countries:

"I would like us to leave this land of Damot. I would like victory to remain on our side in a happy fight against Ali. I would like My lord (Dejazmach Goshu) to be seated in Ali's seat, and I would like to hear an order issued in his name that restored to the original possessors all the lands of Ethiopia.

I would also have liked our weapons to have been used to sweep from this land to the tip of the earth all traces of our Muslim invaders. I would like to see them pushed back into the Wollo, even beyond. I would like to see My lord send messages to Dejazmach Wube to summon this prince to come, to recognize our suzerainty. From there, I would like to govern to the shores of the Red Sea. So, after a few months, the waves would bring us half a dozen engineers from my country with weapons and cannons. These men would serve us to establish at the centre of our conquests a great stronghold which, though sitting, in the middle of a plain, would be stronger than the Steepest hillforts.

I would like to resume on the pagan Gallas all these neighboring lands of the Gojjam which they took from the Christian races. For them I would like to see an inflexible master like our weapons that would send them priests to teach them our religion.

A few years of fortune, and all these things would be possible. Like the emperors of Ethiopia, and better than them, we would then enter in friendly relations with the ruler of Egypt, the chiefs of Arabia and those of Europe. When the power is well seated in our hands, I would like my victorious master to choose Among the descendants of the emperors man the more dignified, and My lord would install on the throne of his fathers this chosen child of the race of Israel.

I would like to appear on horseback in front of my master's tent and say to him: "I have come, stranger among you, to modestly follow the paths. that crisscross your country. Your eyes have distinguished me, your heart has moved in my favor, and you have invited me to share your fortunes. I followed them faithfully, I abandoned for them relatives, friends and countries I grew up under your auspices. What I am worth, I owe it to you. […] I give you my tent, my mead, my hand horses, my riches, my arms then my mules with their grooms, their saddles, their caparaçons, their silver and copper frontal, their amulets. I leave you my advisors I leave you my brave Finally I you leaves everything what I loved, everything I take from you, all that I give back to you, with prayer to replace me with them by a choice that is worthy, so that those who have served me for a long time may be happy in the service of another. I ask you for a pair of sandals, a pilgrim's staff, and if God enlightens you, I ask for your companionship. You've done enough to Men; let's go do something for God![42]"..

Arnaud did not return to France to leave Ethiopia, but on a mission. He wanted to complete his project of the Christian empire of Ethiopia with Dejazmach Goshu as emperor, under the protection of France.

He addressed his report to the government through the Duke of Bassano. The latter responded favourably and, without an official mission, Arnaud was instructed to bring diplomatic gifts to Goshu on behalf of France, intended to promote an alliance.

Arnaud's mother made him promise not to cross the Tekezé, a sub-tributary of the Black Nile on the western border of Tigray. She wanted him to stay where he could easily reach the sea to return to France.

As soon as he landed in Massawa, the news of the return of "Ras Michael" spread; his former soldiers gave him a triumph; the Dejazmach Goshu was looking forward to seeing his friend again. Unfortunately, Goshu was on the other side of the river in the Gojjam. Arnaud kept his promise and was unable to join Goshu. They exchanged many letters, but Arnaud remained faithful to his oath.

In November 1852, the Battle of Gur Amba ended with the death of Dejazmach Goshu and the victory of Kassa Hailou, the future Tewodros II.

For Arnaud, it was a disaster; he had lost a very dear friend. His hope of building a Christian empire vanished with him. Desperate, he returned to France at the end of December 1852.

His last attempt to link France and Ethiopia was in 1863. The British were omnipresent in the region (Sudan, Aden, Somalia) and aimed to take Ethiopia under their protection. The Negus was prepared to resist the British offer if France sent him military aid. Arnaud asked Napoleon III for an audience to explain the advantages to be expected for the France. The emperor listened politely, but for questions of alliances signed with England, he refused to intervene. In 1868 the British expedition to Ethiopia put Ethiopia under the protection of the British Empire.

Arnaud travelled relatively soon after 1853. He did, however, go to Jerusalem where he wanted to found, at his own expense, an asylum for Ethiopian pilgrims.

Arnaud married an American, Elisabeth West Young, she was the daughter of Robert West Young (1805-1880), a physician and Anne Porter Webb.

They had nine children:[43]

• Anne Elisabeth (1865-1918) ;
• Michel Robert (1866-1900) ;
• Thérèse (1867-1945) ;
  

  Ciboure - château d'Elhorriaga
• Ferdinand Guilhem (1870-1915)
• Marie-Angèle (1871-1955) ;
• Camille Arnauld (1873-1968) ;
• Jéhan Augustin (1874-1912) ;
• Martial (1878-1914) ;
• Marc Antoine (1883-1914).

His salon, rue de Grenelle, was a regular appointment for intelligent and educated men, but Arnauld hated worldliness and he left Paris with his family to return to the Basque Country. He built the castle of Elhorriaga in Ciboure by the architect Lucien Cottet (the castle was occupied by the Wehrmacht during the Second World War and was destroyed in 1985 to make way for a real estate project).[44]

Arnauld d'Abbadie circa 1892

In Ciboure he was quickly surrounded by a reputation as a charitable man, but he always remained discreet. The first volume of the account of travels in Ethiopia was published by Arnauld in 1868 under the title of Twelve years of stay in Upper Ethiopia. It recounts the period 1837-1841. The next three volumes were not published during his lifetime. Volume 1 was translated for the first time in 2016 into the Ethiopian language and Volume 2 in 2020 under the name of "በኢትዮጵያ ከፍተኛ ተራሮች ቆይታዬ" (My stay in the high mountains of Ethiopia).

Arnaud did not forget his patriotism and in 1870 he tried to form a free company and lead it to defeat the invasion. His call was heard and the company was about to leave when the armistice was signed on January 28, 1871.

At the time of the decrees expelling the congregations in 1880, Arnauld put his house, located a few kilometers from the Spanish border, at the service of the victims of these sectarian laws. The Fathers of the Society of Jesus are above all his guests.

Arnaud died on 8 November 1893, he is buried in the cemetery of Ciboure. The photograph in Ethiopian clothes was taken shortly before his death.

The memory of "Ras Michael" remained alive in Ethiopia for a long time, indeed Emperor Menelik II and his wife referred to him:

[…] "He had, in her person, made to love the France. And if we have sympathies among this people today, the old men and Menelik himself will tell you the reason: "We have not forgotten Ras Michael..."[45]"..