Baháʼí views on science

The Bahá'í Faith teaches that there is a harmony or unity between science and religion, and that true science and true religion can never conflict. This principle is rooted in various statements in the Bahá'í scriptures. Some scholars have argued that ideas in the philosophy of science resonate with the Bahá'í approach. In addition, scholars have noted the Bahá'í view of interpreting religious scriptures symbolically rather than literally as conducive to harmony with scientific findings. The Bahá'í community and leadership have also applied their teachings on science and religion with the goal of the betterment of society, for instance by providing education and technology.

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The principle of the harmony of science and religion

The principle of the harmony of science (or rational reason) and religion (or having faith) has been a verbalized principle of the religion since ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's journeys to the West from 1910 to 1913[1] as an extension of the view of the singularness of reality to be explored through independent investigations by reasoned and spiritual methods.[2] It had been discussed without the specific wording a decade earlier via a compilation Anton Haddad put together with Mírzá Abu'l-Faḍl along with their own perspective - a subject that was subsequently taken up by American Bahá'ís.[3] Saiedi characterizes the relationship between science and the Bahá'í Faith, and the Bahá'í Faith and the importance of reason, as "one of its main spiritual principles".[4]

The Bahá'í view of science has been summarized as emphasizing recognition of the process of science, although not one isolated to the "scientific method" from a set of values and societal choices and understandings, not mere faith in the conclusions which are always open to refinement, without casting so much doubt that the process of science is somehow lacking because it is influenced by current understandings and conditions to which religion can have a strong influence.[5][6][7]

'Abdu'l-Bahá told jokes at the expense of materialist scientists.[1] However, according to Phelps, he reserved his harshest condemnations for religious people who took religious scripture literally, who he said "…have become the cause of much of the conflict in the world, whether between different faith communities or between science and religion…."[1]

In the Bahá'í writings

While writing on the Bahá'í views on science, certain excerpts from Bahá'í scriptures are commonly used by experts; the following are a few examples.[lower-alpha 1]

Nader Saiedi, adjunct professor at UCLA,[8] notes Bahá'u'lláh criticized a pursuit of pseudoscience which claimed that "…numerous esoteric sciences is required to understand the mysteries of the sacred Word."[9] saying:

… How clear and evident it is to every discerning heart that this so-called learning is and hath ever been, rejected by Him Who is the one true God…. Whoso desireth to fathom the mystery of this “Mi‘raj,” and craveth a drop from this ocean, if the mirror of his heart be already obscured by the dust of these learnings, he must needs cleanse and purify it ere the light of this mystery can be reflected therein.

In this day, they that are submerged beneath the ocean of ancient Knowledge, and dwell within the ark of divine wisdom, forbid the people such idle pursuits.…(quoting the Kitáb-i-Íqán[10][11])

and:

'Arts, crafts and sciences uplift the world of being, and are conducive to its exaltation. Knowledge is as wings to man’s life, and a ladder for his ascent. Its acquisition is incumbent upon everyone. The knowledge of such sciences, however, should be acquired as can profit the peoples of the earth, and not those which begin with words and end with words. Great indeed is the claim of scientists and craftsmen on the peoples of the world. Unto this beareth witness the Mother Book in this conspicuous station.'(quoted from the Epistle to the Son of the Wolf[10][12])

Phelps quotes Bahá'u'lláh on the issue of language and understanding:

[S]ince all do not possess the same degree of spiritual understanding, certain statements will inevitably be made, and there shall arise, as a consequence, as many differing opinions as there are human minds and as many divergent beliefs as there are created things. This is certain and settled, and can in no wise be averted…. Our aim is that thou shouldst urge all the believers to show forth kindness and mercy and to overlook certain shortcomings among them, that differences may be dispelled; true harmony be established; and the censure and reproach, the hatred and dissension, seen among the peoples of former times may not arise anew.[1]

'Abdu'l-Bahá anonymously published The Secret of Divine Civilization in 1875 in Iran, noting how the country had declined among the nations "as a result of poor education, bad governance, ignorance of scientific advances, rejection of innovation, and the atrophy of the life of the mind."[13] and later restated Bahá'u'lláh's teaching, saying:

Religious teaching which is at variance with science and reason is human invention and imagination unworthy of acceptance, for the antithesis and opposite of knowledge is superstition born of the ignorance of man. If we say religion is opposed to science, we lack knowledge of either true science or true religion, for both are founded upon the premises and conclusions of reason, and both must bear its test.”(quoted from The Promulgation of Universal Peace[14][15])

Religion and science are the two wings upon which man’s intelligence can soar into the heights, with which the human soul can progress. It is not possible to fly with one wing alone! Should a man try to fly with the wing of religion alone he would quickly fall into the quagmire of superstition, whilst on the other hand, with the wing of science alone he would also make no progress, but fall into the despairing slough of materialism.(quoting Paris Talks [4][16])

Scientific knowledge is the highest attainment upon the human plane, for science is the discoverer of realities. It is of two kinds: material and spiritual. Material science is the investigation of natural phenomena; divine science is the discovery and realization of spiritual verities. The world of humanity must acquire both.(quoted from The Promulgation of Universal Peace[17][18])

Shoghi Effendi, head of the religion 1921–1957, offered a vision of the future including this principle:

In such a world society, science and religion, the two most potent forces in human life, will be reconciled, will co-operate, and will harmoniously develop…. The economic resources of the world will be organized, its sources of raw materials will be tapped and fully utilized, its markets will be co-ordinated and developed, and the distribution of its products will be equitably regulated.(quoting World Order of Bahá'u'lláh[19][20])

The Universal House of Justice, current head of the religion, through its Bahá'í International Community, released a statement in 1995, The Prosperity of Humankind[21] which says in part:

For the vast majority of the world’s population, the idea that human nature has a spiritual dimension—indeed that its fundamental identity is spiritual—is a truth requiring no demonstration. It is a perception of reality that can be discovered in the earliest records of civilization and that has been cultivated for several millennia by every one of the great religious traditions of humanity’s past. Its enduring achievements in law, the fine arts, and the civilizing of human intercourse are what give substance and meaning to history. In one form or another its promptings are a daily influence in the lives of most people on earth and, as events around the world today dramatically show, the longings it awakens are both inextinguishable and incalculably potent.[22][23]

and further

Future generations … will find almost incomprehensible the circumstance that, in an age paying tribute to an egalitarian philosophy and related democratic principles, development planning should view the masses of humanity as essentially recipients of benefits from aid and training. Despite acknowledgment of participation as a principle, the scope of the decision making left to most of the world’s population is at best secondary, limited to a range of choices formulated by agencies inaccessible to them and determined by goals that are often irreconcilable with their perceptions of reality.[24][25]

The scholar Graham Hassall[26] summarizes that statement saying it "demonstrates the breath-taking scope of the Bahá'í program of governance reform, from local to global levels, and encompasses not only political and legal fundamentals, but the roles of science and technology in the global distribution of knowledge and power."[24] and university professor Sabet Behrooz[27] called "…a brilliant statement …(showing) the necessity of harmony between science and religion…(which) must be the guiding light and the organizing principle of our endeavors in integrative studies of the Bahá'í Faith."[21]

Implications

A number of scholars have offered commentary on the Bahá'í teachings on science and religion. Saiedi outlines several implications of the Bahá'í view of an agreement between religion and science or reason:

  • religious evolution of understanding laws and institutions.[28]
  • religion is not a substitute or competition with science but have a mutual reciprocity because of their individual qualities[29]
  • rather than take religious statements literally, the Bahá'í Faith provides a lexicon of interpretations or allegorical relationships of past statements[30]
  • an acceptance of the laws of nature as an expression of divine will and so called miracles are not evidence otherwise.[31]

Phelps lists the following three points:[1]

  • that ultimate reality is ineffable
  • that humility about what can be understood and applied is itself "the highest degree of human attainment"
  • that religious scripture is metaphorical, not literal.

Farzam Arbab, project developer and Bahá'í administrator,[32] also states that religious literalism is a problem.[33]

Ian Kluge, independent scholar,[34] observed a relationship between the Bahá'í stance of science and reason and the Bahá'í teaching on independent investigation for the individual where without reason and faith together, quoting `Abdu'l-Bahá, "... the heart finds no rest in it, and real faith is impossible..." and beyond the individual to societal progress which would be "...trapped in traditional worldviews or paradigms, be they religious, cultural, intellectual, or scientific..." and appealed to Aristotle’s four-fold causality which to him "...suggests that science deals with material and efficient causality whereas religion deals with issues related to formal and final causality."[35]

Scholars have also drawn parallels between Bahá'í views of science and the views of various philosophers. Karlberg and Smith underscore and summarize the work of Alan Chalmers and Peter Godfrey-Smith who had published university press texts, in relation to the Bahá'í Faith on a number of points.[36] Arbab appealed to Thomas Nagel's thoughts[37] on "sophisticated secularism".[38] Roland Faber elaborated this approach in parallel with the philosophy of Alfred North Whitehead (so called Process philosophy,)[39] and William S. Hatcher drew on the ideas of Aristotle, Avicenna, Bertrand Russell, and Stephen Hawking in his defence of the Bahá'í view.[40]

Sociologist Margit Warburg quotes a 1978 letter from the Universal House of Justice "The principle of the harmony of science and religion means not only that religious teachings should be studied with the light of reason and evidence as well as of faith and inspiration, but also that everything in this creation, all aspects of human life and knowledge, should be studied in light of revelation as well as in that of purely rational investigation."[41] From it Warburg sees a "clear stance in the dilemma between academic freedom and acceptance of religious premises" and the issues of where "possible conflict with doctrines that can be tested empirically" can occur.[42] She notes that at the inauguration of the chair for Bahá'í Studies at Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Peter Khan spoke saying in part that the place of Bahá'í understanding between science and religion was not in the "narrow definitions of legitimate scholarly activity in some disciplines within the academic community" criticizing the materialistic scientific studies of religion, asking that Bahá'í scholars, in Warburg's words, "should not comply with their academic tradition" which ignore the spiritual inputs of religion which will conflict with the Bahá'í Faith's own teachings.[43] Warburg criticizes Khan's statement as a spokesman of the Bahá'í Faith in this situation and what it could mean for Bahá'í administration.[44] "That is precisely what is at stake in the case of the controversial sources to Babi and Baha’i history, as well as concerning the sources to the construction of Abraham."[45]

Behrooz proposed a review of the progressive nature of religion and scholarly activity with history and present contexts in 2000. He stated that "An integrative approach to understanding the implications of the Bahá'í teachings, however, follows developmental processes that begin as primarily internal and evolve in a direction of externalization and fusion with other branches of knowledge.… Historically, religions show a similarity of patterns in the development of learning and scholarship methods. For instance, in earlier configurations of integrative studies, a conflict between internal and external is unavoidable since the internal values of the emerging religion are based on a prescriptive (or declarative) style of thinking that presupposes the existence of an inherent circle of unity among its teachings, while the dominant mode of scholarship in the scientific and academic community may view the validity of those presuppositions untenable.… Generally speaking, absolutist positions and authoritarian attitudes expressed by the gatekeepers of knowledge in both science and religion have obscured people's clarity of vision and hindered the union of these two essential entities of human life. In the Bahá'í view, universal teachings of religion should be interpreted within the context of the relativity of human comprehension and the historical nature of knowledge."[21]

Applications

Others have addressed the work of a relationship between science and religion in practical expressions of development. Matthew Weinberg and Arbab, Boicu and Zabihi-Maghaddam, reviewed cases of a social engagement in locally meaningful progress that included a cooperative engagement between religion and science in particular processes.

The influence of the Bahá'í teaching on science and religion was visible in the practice of the religion dating back to the 1870s in the face of a perception of a lot of superstition of Iranian society and taking a stance towards education, science, and technology.[46] Scholars Filip Boicu[47] and Siyamak Zabihi-Maghaddam[48] underscored the Bahá'í view on education directly related to this teaching of the religion which led to some early Bahá'í schools in Iran.[49] Boicu and Zabihi-Maghaddam, recalling the Bahá'í experience in Iran on early schooling which had been extended about education of girls,[50] followed developments of three models of education - Anisa, FUNDAEC, and the Core Curriculum - all of which had direct applications of the teaching and only being distinguished on the application between the individual alone, the individual in a society, and the last one being of all people in the whole of society and a global community.[51]

In the early 20th century, as the Bahá'í Faith was expanding in the United States, the Bahá'í community viewed the issue of race according to another Bahá'í principle – the oneness of humanity – which had been expressed earlier but was further substantiated by 1912 during `Abdu'l-Bahá's talks to American audiences.[52] The idea of interracial unity was counter to views of the majority of scientists of the coming decades and for a time in government policies, which endorsed eugenics as legal steps against Indigenous Americans, people of African descent, and generally People of Color, and other practices according to white-society standards, and similarly in other countries such as when the religion was banned in Germany under the Nazis.[52] However, the American Bahá'í community did not respond by denigrating the scholarly thought of the day, but rather by supporting the then-minority view of scholars who opposed scientific racism.[52] Marion Carpenter, a notable early American Bahá'í youth, is quoted in 1925 saying “Not religion or science, but religion and science, the combination of faith and reason, is the teaching of Bahá’u’lláh to the world today.” The American scientist Herbert Miller defended interracial unity at a Bahá'í-sponsored World Unity Conference in 1926 in Cleveland.[52]

Project analyst Matthew Weinberg[53] outlined socioeconomic development cases using the non-profit ISGP - the Institute for Studies for Global Prosperity, "a non-profit organization working in collaboration with the Baha’i International Community",[54] in India, Uganda, and Brazil. In India stakeholders in a project developed an engagement of religion and science anchored in community of practice was seen as a majority point of view of the participants in the conference and the Indian National Spiritual Assembly established an office - the "Secretariat for the Promotion of the Discourse on Science, Religion, and Development" in 2001.[55] They had successive meetings in 2004 and 2007 and ongoing.[55] In Uganda work reached a point in 2001 working with IGSP that Ugandan president Yoweri Museveni encouraged the work of nurturing social unity "by championing the equality of women and men, alleviating poverty, and overcoming entrenched patterns of corruption."[56] Again materialistic approaches were seen as failing alone.[56] In Brazil again in 2001 a program of action was initiated, seminars were held and a group formed to develop analysis of the system[57] published a book and simultaneously application in some local community "Centers of Learning" and one as a pilot project,[58] but to advance the group needed to approach the work with some values: "To set out on a new path requires courage—not an arrogant disposition that demands swift and radical action, but one that is tempered with humility and wisdom. It requires an environment where the dynamics of individual and collective transformation are fully considered; where it is realized that growth and change are organic, that they are gradual and slow, and that they involve constant action, evaluation, and study; and where it is understood that, in pursuing such transformation, one is faced with an ongoing tension between absorbing setbacks and gaining new ground."[58]

Influence

Sociologist Michael McMullen found that Bahá'í converts in America appreciated the teaching of a harmony between science and religion as resolving their sense of these - that they had been disillusioned with traditional organized religion and seeing the way Bahá'ís use science to inform religion so it "makes sense and provides meaning in a globalized world" by presenting an evolutionary perspective on revelation via the teaching of progressive revelation.[59] Post-doctoral scholar in Ottoman Studies[60] and faculty at the Wilmette Institute,[61] Necati Alkan documented a case of Muslim Abdullah Cevdet in looking at the influence of the Bahá'í Faith and the teaching on a harmony of science and religion specifically as a model of reform but which was not accepted by the Turkish Muslim community.[62]

Bahá'í views on evolution
See also: Acceptance of evolution by religious groups and Rejection of evolution by religious groups

ʻAbdu'l-Bahá discussed evolution, including making two claims that may appear contradictory: that "man" evolved to his present form and did not always exist, and that man in his perfect form has always existed.[63] Two Bahá'í researchers, translator and scholar of Islam Keven Brown[64] and biochemist Eberhard von Kitzing,[65][66] wrote a book exploring the Bahá'í understanding of evolution, which was published in 2001.[67] They argue that 'Abdu'l-Bahá did not oppose the physical evolution of the forms of life, reserving only God's command to all existence, itself, to be distinct from any evolution.[68] What 'Abdu'l-Bahá adds to the standard view of evolution is that there is and always has been a goal, that situations of existence are not mere change but progress of "God’s prior creation of the possible" and not only responding the physical requirements and though types of living beings can also decline and regress.[67]: pp85–6  And among the possible to beings the universe was given a goal of producing humanity.[69] Additionally 'Abdu'l-Bahá defines that each type of living being is identifiable as itself and that the progress possible such a being is tied to is tied to its type and as such that type of living being can achieve its possible goal as that type and remain as that type as long as it is allowed to remain, and not evolve into another type and indeed should conditions wipe out that example and later conditions return that example will itself return.[67]: pp92–3  Political scientist Arash Abizadeh[70] gave a generally favorable review,[63] and scholar of Abrahamic religions Stephen Lambden[71] gave a favorable review.[66]

See also

Notes
  1. There have been compilations published. The current and updated published collection is officially published at Scholarship (online ed.). Bahá’í International Community. 2022.

    with past editions and works of the like back to the 1990s:

    * Bahá'u'lláh; Abdu'l-Bahá; Shoghi Effendi; Universal House of Justice (2000). "Scholarship". In compiled by Research Department of the Universal House of Justice published in (ed.). Compilation of Compilations. Vol. 3. Australia: Baha'i Publications. pp. 226–264. ISBN 9781876322847.
    * Compiled by the Research Department of the Universal House of Justice, ed. (February 1995). A Compilation on Scholarship. Haifa, Israel: Bahá’í World Centre.
    * Effendi, Shoghi; Universal House of Justice (1993). compiled by Peter J. Khan (ed.). "Bahá'í Scholarship". Baháʼí Studies Review. London: Association for Bahá'í Studies of English-Speaking Europe. 3 (2). Retrieved May 4, 2022.
    * Universal House of Justice (1993). "Bahá'í Scholarship: Statements from the World Centre". Baháʼí Studies Review. London: Association for Bahá'í Studies of English-Speaking Europe. 3 (2). Retrieved May 4, 2022.
    * compiled by Seena Fazel, ed. (1993). "Bahá'í Scholarship: Readings". Baháʼí Studies Review. London: Association for Bahá'í Studies of English-Speaking Europe. 3 (2). Retrieved May 4, 2022.
    And there was a talk published covering the issues from 1992 published in 1993: Please note materials do continue to be found and vetted in addition to forthcoming guidance from institutions. See Steven Phelps (Apr 10, 2022). "Cataloguing and subject indexing at loom.loomofreality.org". In Graham Hassall (ed.). The Reference Desk: Projects that Support Bahá'í Scholarship in the Digital Age. Bahai-Library.com. Retrieved May 4, 2022.

Citations
  1. The World of the Bahá'í Faith… The harmony of science and religion 2022.
  2. Stockman, Robert H (2020). James R. Lewis; Margo Kitts (eds.). Bahá'í Faith, violence, and non-violence. Elements in religion and violence. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. pp. 30–1. doi:10.1017/9781108613446. ISBN 9781108706278. ISSN 2514-3786. OCLC 1154852477. S2CID 225389995.
  3. Stockman, Robert (May 1995). Early Expansion, 1900–1912. The Bahá'í Faith in America. Vol. 2. Wilmette, Ill.: George Ronald. pp. 90–4. ISBN 978-0-87743-282-1.
  4. The Reconstruction of the Concept of Religion… 2021.
  5. The World of the Bahá'í Faith: A Culture of Learning 2022, p. 465.
  6. The World of the Bahá'í Faith… The physical and spiritual dimensions 2022, pp. 234–235.
  7. Religion and Public Discourse… An Inquiry into… 2018, p. 149.
  8. "Nader Saiedi, UCLA". University of California, UC Regents. 2022. Retrieved Apr 22, 2022.
  9. Logos and Civilization… 2000, p. 150.
  10. Logos and Civilization… 2000.
  11. Bahá'u'lláh; translated by Shoghi Effendi (2022) [1861]. "Part 2". Kitáb-i-Íqán (online ed.). Bahá'í International Community.
  12. Bahá'u'lláh; translated by Shoghi Effendi (2022) [1891]. Epistle to the Son of the Wolf (online ed.). Bahá'í International Community.
  13. Religion and Public Discourse …Some Considerations 2018.
  14. Religion and Public Discourse …Religion in an Age of Transition 2018.
  15. 'Abdu'l-Bahá (2022). "Talk 'Abdu'l‑Bahá Delivered in Pittsburgh 7 May 1912". In Howard MacNutt (ed.). The Promulgation of Universal Peace (online ed.). Bahá’í International Community.
  16. 'Abdu'l-Bahá (2022). "The Fourth Principle—The Acceptance of the Relation between Religion and Science 4 Avenue de Camoëns, Paris, November 12th". Paris Talks (online ed.). Bahá’í International Community.
  17. The World of the Bahá'í Faith: A Culture of Learning 2022, p. 464.
  18. 'Abdu'l-Bahá (2022). "23 May 1912 Talk at Home of Mr. and Mrs. Francis W. Breed, 367 Harvard Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts". In Howard MacNutt (ed.). The Promulgation of Universal Peace (online ed.). Bahá’í International Community.)
  19. Stockman, Robert (2013). The Bahá'í Faith. Bloomsbury’s Guides for the Perplexed. New York: Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 66. ISBN 9781441192011. OCLC 874020717.
  20. Effendi, Shoghi (2022) [1938]. The World Order of Bahá'u'lláh (online ed.). Bahá'í International Community.
  21. Converging Realities… Integrative Approach… 2000.
  22. The World of the Bahá'í Faith… Economics… 2022.
  23. The Prosperity of Humankind (online ed.). Bahá'í International Community. 2022 [1995].
  24. The World of the Bahá'í Faith… Governance 2022.
  25. The Prosperity of Humankind (online ed.). Bahá'í International Community. 2022 [1995].
  26. "Graham Hassall; Associate Professor". School of Government, Victoria University of Wellington Te Herenga Waka. 2022. Retrieved May 3, 2022.
  27. "Behrooz Sabet, Developmental Editor". Burnhaninstitute.org. Burhan Institute. February 2, 2017. Retrieved May 9, 2022.
  28. The Reconstruction of the Concept of Religion… 2021, p. 92.
  29. The Reconstruction of the Concept of Religion… 2021, pp. 92–93.
  30. The Reconstruction of the Concept of Religion… 2021, pp. 92–95.
  31. The Reconstruction of the Concept of Religion… 2021, p. 95.
  32. Religion and Public Discourse… An Inquiry into… 2018, p. 281.
  33. Religion and Public Discourse… An Inquiry into… 2018, p. 143.
  34. Behrooz Sabet (February 10, 2017). "Ian Kluge". BurhanInstitute.org. Retrieved Apr 22, 2022.
  35. The World of the Bahá'í Faith… The physical and spiritual dimensions 2022, p. 234.
  36. The World of the Bahá'í Faith: A Culture of Learning 2022, pp. 464–466.
  37. Religion and Public Discourse… An Inquiry into… 2018, p. 132.
  38. Religion and Public Discourse… An Inquiry into… 2018, pp. 150–157.
  39. The Garden of Reality 2018.
  40. Minimalism: A Bridge… 2004, pp. 105–110.
  41. Citizens of the world… The Harmony of Science and Religion 2006.
  42. Citizens of the world… The Harmony of Science and Religion 2006, pp. 70–71.
  43. Citizens of the world… The Harmony of Science and Religion 2006, pp. 71–72.
  44. Citizens of the world… The Harmony of Science and Religion 2006, pp. 73–74.
  45. Citizens of the world… The Harmony of Science and Religion 2006, p. 75.
  46. The Forgotten Schools… 2009.
  47. The World of the Bahá'í Faith… Education in Pedagogy and Practice 2022, p. xii.
  48. The World of the Bahá'í Faith… Education in Pedagogy and Practice 2022, p. xvii.
  49. The World of the Bahá'í Faith… Education in Pedagogy and Practice 2022, p. 319.
  50. The World of the Bahá'í Faith… Education in Pedagogy and Practice 2022, pp. 325–326.
  51. The World of the Bahá'í Faith… Education in Pedagogy and Practice 2022, pp. 327–330.
  52. Searching for May Maxwell… 'Racial Amity' 2013.
  53. Religion and Public Discourse … Contributions to International Development 2018, p. 282.
  54. Religion and Public Discourse … Contributions to International Development 2018, p. 191.
  55. Religion and Public Discourse … Contributions to International Development 2018, p. 200.
  56. Religion and Public Discourse … Contributions to International Development 2018, p. 201.
  57. Religion and Public Discourse … Contributions to International Development 2018, p. 204.
  58. Religion and Public Discourse … Contributions to International Development 2018, p. 205.
  59. McMullen, Michael (2000). The Bahá'í: the religious construction of a global identity. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. pp. 26–7. ISBN 9780813528359. OCLC 469363661.
  60. "Academia profile, Necati Alkan". Academia.edu. 2022. Retrieved Apr 22, 2022.
  61. "Necati Alkan, PhD". WilmetteInstitute.org. 2022. Retrieved Apr 22, 2022.
  62. Alkan, Necati (Jan 2005). "'The Eternal Enemy of Islām': Abdullah Cevdet and the Baha'i Religion". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. University of London. 68 (1): 1–20. doi:10.1017/S0041977X05000017. ISSN 0041-977X. JSTOR 20181854. OCLC 6015273132. S2CID 145760950. Retrieved Apr 22, 2022.
  63. Abizadeh, Arash (1 February 2004). "(Book Review) Keven Brown and Ederbard von Kitzing, Evolution and Baha'i Belief…". International Journal of Middle East Studies. Cambridge University Press. 36 (1): 148–9. Retrieved May 27, 2022.
  64. "Keven Brown". Academia.edu. 2022. Retrieved May 27, 2022.
  65. "Eberhard von Kitzing (Herr)". LinkedIn.com. 2022. Retrieved May 27, 2022.
  66. Lambden, Stephen (Jan 1, 2022) [September 2007]. "(Book Review) Evolution and Baha'i Belief: Abdu'l-Baha's Response to Nineteenth-Century Darwinism…". Iranian Studies. The International Society for Iranian Studies; Published online by Cambridge University Press. 40 (4): 552–3. doi:10.1017/S002108620001714X. S2CID 245660055. Retrieved May 27, 2022.
  67. Brown and von Kitzing 2001.
  68. Brown and von Kitzing 2001, pp. 84, 88.
  69. Brown and von Kitzing 2001, p. 91.
  70. "Arash Abizadeh Academic; Professor". McGill University. 2022. Retrieved May 27, 2022.
  71. "Stephen N. Lambden, Merced". Hurqalya Publications: Center for Shaykhī and Bābī-Bahā’ī Studies, University of California Merced. 2022. Retrieved May 27, 2022.

References
  • Arbab, Farzam (2018). "Chapter 5: An Inquiry into the Harmony of Science and Religion". In Geoffrey Cameron; Benjamin Schewel (eds.). Religion and Public Discourse in an Age of Transition: Reflections of Bahá'í Thought and Practice. Bahá'í Studies. Waterloo, ON: Wilfrid Laurier University Press. pp. 131–162. ISBN 9781771123303. OCLC 1021807420.
  • Crosson, Selena M. (June 2013). "'Racial Amity': Bahá'í Anti-racist Activism and the Modelling of Mixed Race". Searching for May Maxwell: Bahá'í Millennial Feminism, Transformative Identity & Globalism in the new World Order Shaping Women's Role in Early Bahá'i Culture 1898-1940 (Thesis). Saskatoon, Canada: College of Graduate Studies and Research, Department of History, University of Saskatchewan. pp. 133–141. OCLC 1033000152.
  • Faber, Roland (2018). The Garden of Reality - Transreligious Relativism in a World of Becoming. London, UK: Lexington Books. pp. 13, 39–47, 125, 134, 188–9, 276–7. ISBN 9781498576239. LCCN 2018012209. OCLC 1033577028.
  • Saiedi, Nader (2000). Logos and Civilization: spirit, history, and order in the writings of Baha'u'llah. Bethesda, Md: University Press of Maryland. pp. 11–3, 150, 244–5. ISBN 1-883053-60-9. OCLC 681923048.
  • Schewel, Benjamin (2018). "Chapter 1: Religion in an Age of Transition". In Geoffrey Cameron; Benjamin Schewel (eds.). Religion and Public Discourse in an Age of Transition: Reflections of Bahá'í Thought and Practice. Bahá'í Studies. Waterloo, ON: Wilfrid Laurier University Press. p. 23. ISBN 9781771123303. OCLC 1021807420.
  • Shahvar, Soli (2009). "Introduction". The Forgotten Schools - The Bahá'ís and Modern Education in Iran, 1899–1934. International Library of Iranian Studies. Vol. 11. New York: Tauris Academic Studies. pp. 21, 137–140, 195. ISBN 9780857712714. OCLC 1091789673.
  • Warburg, Margit (2006). "The Harmony of Science and Religion". In W. J. Hanegraaff; P. P. Kumar (eds.). Citizens of the world: a history and sociology of the Bahá'ís from a globalisation perspective. Numen book series. Vol. 106. Leiden: Brill. pp. 70–3. ISBN 9789004143739. OCLC 470711207.
  • Weinberg, Matthew (2018). "Chapter 7: Contributions to International Development Discourse: Exploring the Roles of Science and Religion". In Geoffrey Cameron; Benjamin Schewel (eds.). Religion and Public Discourse in an Age of Transition: Reflections of Bahá'í Thought and Practice. Bahá'í Studies. Waterloo, ON: Wilfrid Laurier University Press. pp. 191–220. ISBN 9781771123303. OCLC 1021807420.

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