List of numeral systems

There are many different numeral systems, that is, writing systems for expressing numbers.

By culture / time period

Name

Base

Sample

Approx. First Appearance

Proto-cuneiform numerals

10+60

c. 3500–2000 BCE

Indus numerals

c. 3500–1900 BCE

Proto-Elamite numerals

10+60

3,100 BCE

Sumerian numerals

10+60

3,100 BCE

Egyptian numerals

10

3,000 BCE

Babylonian numerals

10+60

2,000 BCE

Aegean numerals

10

𐄇 𐄈 𐄉 𐄊 𐄋 𐄌 𐄍 𐄎 𐄏 (

)
𐄐 𐄑 𐄒 𐄓 𐄔 𐄕 𐄖 𐄗 𐄘 (

)
𐄙 𐄚 𐄛 𐄜 𐄝 𐄞 𐄟 𐄠 𐄡 (

)
𐄢 𐄣 𐄤 𐄥 𐄦 𐄧 𐄨 𐄩 𐄪 (

)
𐄫 𐄬 𐄭 𐄮 𐄯 𐄰 𐄱 𐄲 𐄳 (

)

1,500 BCE

Chinese numerals
Japanese numerals
Korean numerals (Sino-Korean)
Vietnamese numerals (Sino-Vietnamese)

10

零一二三四五六七八九十百千萬億 (Default, Traditional Chinese)
〇一二三四五六七八九十百千万亿 (Default, Simplified Chinese)
零壹貳參肆伍陸柒捌玖拾佰仟萬億 (Financial, T. Chinese)
零壹贰叁肆伍陆柒捌玖拾佰仟萬億 (Financial, S. Chinese)

1,300 BCE

Roman numerals

I V X L C D M

1,000 BCE

Hebrew numerals

10

א ב ג ד ה ו ז ח ט
י כ ל מ נ ס ע פ צ
ק ר ש ת ך ם ן ף ץ

800 BCE

Indian numerals

10

Tamil ௦ ௧ ௨ ௩ ௪ ௫ ௬ ௭ ௮ ௯
Malayalam ൦ ൧ ൨ ൩ ൪ ൫ ൬ ൭ ൮ ൯

Kannada ೦ ೧ ೨ ೩ ೪ ೫ ೬ ೭ ೮ ೯

Telugu ౦ ౧ ౨ ౩ ౪ ౫ ౬ ౭ ౮ ౯

Odia ୦ ୧ ୨ ୩ ୪ ୫ ୬ ୭ ୮ ୯

Bengali ০ ১ ২ ৩ ৪ ৫ ৬ ৭ ৮ ৯

Devanagari ० १ २ ३ ४ ५ ६ ७ ८ ९

Punjabi ੦ ੧ ੨ ੩ ੪ ੫ ੬ ੭ ੮ ੯

Gujarati ૦ ૧ ૨ ૩ ૪ ૫ ૬ ૭ ૮ ૯
Tibetan ༠ ༡ ༢ ༣ ༤ ༥ ༦ ༧ ༨ ༩

Hindustani ۰ ۱ ۲ ۳ ۴ ۵ ۶ ۷ ۸ ۹

750–500 BCE

Greek numerals

10

ō α β γ δ ε ϝ ζ η θ ι
ο Αʹ Βʹ Γʹ Δʹ Εʹ Ϛʹ Ζʹ Ηʹ Θʹ

<400 BCE

Phoenician numerals

10

𐤙 𐤘 𐤗 𐤛𐤛𐤛 𐤛𐤛𐤚 𐤛𐤛𐤖 𐤛𐤛 𐤛𐤚 𐤛𐤖 𐤛 𐤚 𐤖 [1]

<250 BCE[2]

Chinese rod numerals

10

𝍠 𝍡 𝍢 𝍣 𝍤 𝍥 𝍦 𝍧 𝍨 𝍩

1st Century

Coptic numerals

10

Ⲁ Ⲃ Ⲅ Ⲇ Ⲉ Ⲋ Ⲍ Ⲏ Ⲑ

2nd Century

Ge'ez numerals

10

፩ ፪ ፫ ፬ ፭ ፮ ፯ ፰ ፱
፲ ፳ ፴ ፵ ፶ ፷ ፸ ፹ ፺ ፻

3rd–4th Century
15th Century (Modern Style)[3]

Armenian numerals

10

Ա Բ Գ Դ Ե Զ Է Ը Թ Ժ

Early 5th Century

Khmer numerals

10

០ ១ ២ ៣ ៤ ៥ ៦ ៧ ៨ ៩

Early 7th Century

Thai numerals

10

๐ ๑ ๒ ๓ ๔ ๕ ๖ ๗ ๘ ๙

7th Century[4]

Abjad numerals

10

غ ظ ض ذ خ ث ت ش ر ق ص ف ع س ن م ل ك ي ط ح ز و هـ د ج ب ا

<8th Century

Eastern Arabic numerals

10

٩ ٨ ٧ ٦ ٥ ٤ ٣ ٢ ١ ٠

8th Century

Vietnamese numerals (Chữ Nôm)

10

𠬠𠄩𠀧𦊚𠄼𦒹𦉱𠔭𠃩

<9th Century

Western Arabic numerals

10

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

9th Century

Glagolitic numerals

10

Ⰰ Ⰱ Ⰲ Ⰳ Ⰴ Ⰵ Ⰶ Ⰷ Ⰸ ...

9th Century

Cyrillic numerals

10

а в г д е ѕ з и ѳ і ...

10th Century

Rumi numerals

10

10th Century

Burmese numerals

10

၀ ၁ ၂ ၃ ၄ ၅ ၆ ၇ ၈ ၉

11th Century[5]

Tangut numerals

10

𘈩 𗍫 𘕕 𗥃 𗏁 𗤁 𗒹 𘉋 𗢭 𗰗

11th Century (1036)

Cistercian numerals

10

13th Century

Maya numerals

5+20

<15th Century

Muisca numerals

20

<15th Century

Korean numerals (Hangul)

10

영 일 이 삼 사 오 육 칠 팔 구

15th Century (1443)

Aztec numerals

20

16th Century

Sinhala numerals

10

෦ ෧ ෨ ෩ ෪ ෫ ෬ ෭ ෮ ෯ 𑇡 𑇢 𑇣
𑇤 𑇥 𑇦 𑇧 𑇨 𑇩 𑇪 𑇫 𑇬 𑇭 𑇮 𑇯 𑇰 𑇱 𑇲 𑇳 𑇴

<18th Century

Pentadic runes

10

19th Century

Cherokee numerals

10

19th Century (1820s)

Osmanya numerals

10

𐒠 𐒡 𐒢 𐒣 𐒤 𐒥 𐒦 𐒧 𐒨 𐒩

20th Century (1920s)

Kaktovik numerals

5+20

20th Century (1994)

By type of notation

Numeral systems are classified here as to whether they use positional notation (also known as place-value notation), and further categorized by radix or base.

Standard positional numeral systems

A binary clock might use LEDs to express binary values. In this clock, each column of LEDs shows a binary-coded decimal numeral of the traditional sexagesimal time.

The common names are derived somewhat arbitrarily from a mix of Latin and Greek, in some cases including roots from both languages within a single name.[6] There have been some proposals for standardisation.[7]

Base	Name	Usage
2	Binary	Digital computing, imperial and customary volume (bushel-kenning-peck-gallon-pottle-quart-pint-cup-gill-jack-fluid ounce-tablespoon)
3	Ternary	Cantor set (all points in [0,1] that can be represented in ternary with no 1s); counting Tasbih in Islam; hand-foot-yard and teaspoon-tablespoon-shot measurement systems; most economical integer base
4	Quaternary	Chumashan languages and Kharosthi numerals
5	Quinary	Gumatj, Ateso, Nunggubuyu, Kuurn Kopan Noot, and Saraveca languages; common count grouping e.g. tally marks
6	Senary	Diceware, Ndom, Kanum, and Proto-Uralic language (suspected)
7	Septimal	Weeks timekeeping, Western music letter notation
8	Octal	Charles XII of Sweden, Unix-like permissions, Squawk codes, DEC PDP-11, Yuki, Pame, compact notation for binary numbers, Xiantian (I Ching, China)
9	Nonary, nonal	Base 9 encoding; compact notation for ternary
10	Decimal (also known as denary)	Most widely used by modern civilizations[8][9][10]
11	Undecimal, unodecimal[11][12][13]	A base-11 number system was attributed to the Māori (New Zealand) in the 19th century[14] and the Pangwa (Tanzania) in the 20th century.[15] Briefly proposed during the French Revolution to settle a dispute between those proposing a shift to duodecimal and those who were content with decimal. Used as a check digit in ISBN for 10-digit ISBNs.
12	Duodecimal	Languages in the Nigerian Middle Belt Janji, Gbiri-Niragu, Piti, and the Nimbia dialect of Gwandara; Chepang language of Nepal, and the Mahl dialect of Maldivian; dozen-gross-great gross counting; 12-hour clock and months timekeeping; years of Chinese zodiac; foot and inch; Roman fractions; penny and shilling
13	Tredecimal, tridecimal[16][17]	Base 13 encoding; Conway base 13 function.
14	Quattuordecimal, quadrodecimal[16][17]	Programming for the HP 9100A/B calculator[18] and image processing applications;[19] pound and stone.
15	Quindecimal, pentadecimal[20][17]	Telephony routing over IP, and the Huli language.
16	Hexadecimal (also known as sexadecimal and sedecimal)	Base 16 encoding; compact notation for binary data; tonal system; ounce and pound.
17	Septendecimal, heptadecimal[20][17]	Base 17 encoding.
18	Octodecimal[20][17]	Base 18 encoding; a base such that 7ⁿ is palindromic for n = 3, 4, 6, 9.
19	Undevicesimal, nonadecimal[20][17]	Base 19 encoding.
20	Vigesimal	Basque, Celtic, Muisca, Inuit, Yoruba, Tlingit, and Dzongkha numerals; Santali, and Ainu languages; shilling and pound
5+20	Quinary-vigesimal[21][22][23]	Greenlandic, Iñupiaq, Kaktovik, Maya, Nunivak Cupʼig, and Yupʼik numerals – "wide-spread... in the whole territory from Alaska along the Pacific Coast to the Orinoco and the Amazon"[21]
21		Base 21 encoding; also the smallest base where all of 1/2 to 1/18 have periods of 4 or shorter.
22		Base 22 encoding.
23		Kalam language,[24] Kobon language
24	Quadravigesimal[25]	24-hour clock timekeeping; Greek alphabet; Kaugel language.
25		Base 25 encoding; sometimes used as compact notation for quinary.
26	Hexavigesimal[25][26]	Base 26 encoding; sometimes used for encryption or ciphering,[27] using all letters in the English alphabet
27	Septemvigesimal	Telefol[28] and Oksapmin[29] languages. Mapping the nonzero digits to the alphabet and zero to the space is occasionally used to provide checksums for alphabetic data such as personal names,[30] to provide a concise encoding of alphabetic strings,[31] or as the basis for a form of gematria.[32] Compact notation for ternary.
28		Base 28 encoding; months timekeeping.
29		Base 29 encoding.
30	Trigesimal	The Natural Area Code, this is the smallest base such that all of 1/2 to 1/6 terminate, a number n is a regular number if and only if 1/n terminates in base 30.
31		Base 31 encoding.
32	Duotrigesimal	Base 32 encoding; the Ngiti language.
33		Use of letters (except I, O, Q) with digits in vehicle registration plates of Hong Kong.
34		Using all numbers and all letters except I and O; the smallest base where 1/2 terminates and all of 1/2 to 1/18 have periods of 4 or shorter.
35		Using all numbers and all letters except O.
36	Hexatrigesimal[33][34]	Base 36 encoding; use of letters A–Z with digits 0–9.
37		Base 37 encoding; using all numbers and all letters of the Spanish alphabet.
38		Base 38 encoding; use all duodecimal digits and all letters.
39		Base 39 encoding.
40	Quadragesimal	DEC RADIX 50/MOD40 encoding used to compactly represent file names and other symbols on Digital Equipment Corporation computers. The character set is a subset of ASCII consisting of space, upper case letters, the punctuation marks "$", ".", and "%", and the numerals.
42		Base 42 encoding; largest base for which all minimal primes are known.
45		Base 45 encoding.
47		Smallest base for which no generalized Wieferich primes are known.
48		Base 48 encoding.
49		Compact notation for septenary.
50	Quinquagesimal	Base 50 encoding; SQUOZE encoding used to compactly represent file names and other symbols on some IBM computers. Encoding using all Gurmukhi characters plus the Gurmukhi digits.
52		Base 52 encoding, a variant of base 62 without vowels except Y and y[35] or a variant of base 26 using all lower and upper case letters.
54		Base 54 encoding.
56		Base 56 encoding, a variant of base 58.[36]
57		Base 57 encoding, a variant of base 62 excluding I, O, l, U, and u[37] or I, 1, l, 0, and O.[38]
58		Base 58 encoding, a variant of base 62 excluding 0 (zero), I (capital i), O (capital o) and l (lower case L).[39]
60	Sexagesimal	Babylonian numerals; New base 60 encoding, similar to base 62, excluding I, O, and l, but including _(underscore);[40] degrees-minutes-seconds and hours-minutes-seconds measurement systems; Ekari and Sumerian
62		Base 62 encoding, using 0–9, A–Z, and a–z.
64	Tetrasexagesimal	Base 64 encoding; I Ching in China. This system is conveniently coded into ASCII by using the 26 letters of the Latin alphabet in both upper and lower case (52 total) plus 10 numerals (62 total) and then adding two special characters (+ and /).
72		Base72 encoding; the smallest base >2 such that no three-digit narcissistic number exists.
80	Octogesimal	Base80 encoding; Supyire as a sub-base.
81		Base 81 encoding, using as 81=3⁴ is related to ternary.
85		Ascii85 encoding. This is the minimum number of characters needed to encode a 32 bit number into 5 printable characters in a process similar to MIME-64 encoding, since 85⁵ is only slightly bigger than 2³². Such method is 6.7% more efficient than MIME-64 which encodes a 24 bit number into 4 printable characters.
89		Largest base for which all left-truncatable primes are known.
90	Nonagesimal	Related to Goormaghtigh conjecture for the generalized repunit numbers (111 in base 90 = 1111111111111 in base 2).
91		Base 91 encoding, using all ASCII except "-" (0x2D), "\" (0x5C), and "'" (0x27); one variant uses "\" (0x5C) in place of """ (0x22).
92		Base 92 encoding, using all of ASCII except for "`" (0x60) and """ (0x22) due to confusability.[41]
93		Base 93 encoding, using all of ASCII printable characters except for "," (0x27) and "-" (0x3D) as well as the Space character. "," is reserved for delimiter and "-" is reserved for negation.[42]
94		Base 94 encoding, using all of ASCII printable characters.[43]
95		Base 95 encoding, a variant of base 94 with the addition of the Space character.[44]
96		Base 96 encoding, using all of ASCII printable characters as well as the two extra duodecimal digits.
97		Smallest base which is not perfect odd power (where generalized Wagstaff numbers can be factored algebraically) for which no generalized Wagstaff primes are known.
100	Centesimal	As 100=10², these are two decimal digits.
120		Base 120 encoding.
121		Related to base 11.
125		Related to base 5.
128		Using as 128=2⁷.
144		Two duodecimal digits.
169		Two Tridecimal digits.
185		Smallest base which is not perfect power (where generalized repunits can be factored algebraically) for which no generalized repunit primes are known.
196		Two tetradecimal digits.
200		Base 200 encoding.
210		Smallest base such that all of 1/2 to 1/10 terminate.
216		related to base 6.
225		Two pentadecimal digits.
256		Base 256 encoding, as 256=2⁸.
300		Base 300 encoding.
360		Degrees for angle.

Bijective numeration

Base	Name	Usage
1	Unary (Bijective base‑1)	Tally marks, Counting
10	Bijective base-10	To avoid zero
26	Bijective base-26	Spreadsheet column numeration. Also used by John Nash as part of his obsession with numerology and the uncovering of "hidden" messages.[45]

Signed-digit representation

Base	Name	Usage
2	Balanced binary (Non-adjacent form)
3	Balanced ternary	Ternary computers
4	Balanced quaternary
5	Balanced quinary
6	Balanced senary
7	Balanced septenary
8	Balanced octal
9	Balanced nonary
10	Balanced decimal	John Colson Augustin Cauchy
11	Balanced undecimal
12	Balanced duodecimal

Negative bases

The common names of the negative base numeral systems are formed using the prefix nega-, giving names such as:

Base	Name	Usage
−2	Negabinary
−3	Negaternary
−4	Negaquaternary
−5	Negaquinary
−6	Negasenary
−8	Negaoctal
−10	Negadecimal
−12	Negaduodecimal
−16	Negahexadecimal

Complex bases

Base	Name	Usage
2i	Quater-imaginary base	related to base −4 and base 16
${\sqrt {2}}i$	Base ${\sqrt {2}}i$	related to base −2 and base 4
${\sqrt[{4}]{2}}i$	Base ${\sqrt[{4}]{2}}i$	related to base 2
$2\omega$	Base $2\omega$	related to base 8
${\sqrt[{3}]{2}}\omega$	Base ${\sqrt[{3}]{2}}\omega$	related to base 2
−1 ± i	Twindragon base	Twindragon fractal shape, related to base −4 and base 16
1 ± i	Negatwindragon base	related to base −4 and base 16

Non-integer bases

Base	Name	Usage
${\frac {3}{2}}$	Base ${\frac {3}{2}}$	a rational non-integer base
${\frac {4}{3}}$	Base ${\frac {4}{3}}$	related to duodecimal
${\frac {5}{2}}$	Base ${\frac {5}{2}}$	related to decimal
${\sqrt {2}}$	Base ${\sqrt {2}}$	related to base 2
${\sqrt {3}}$	Base ${\sqrt {3}}$	related to base 3
${\sqrt[{3}]{2}}$	Base ${\sqrt[{3}]{2}}$
${\sqrt[{4}]{2}}$	Base ${\sqrt[{4}]{2}}$
${\sqrt[{12}]{2}}$	Base ${\sqrt[{12}]{2}}$	usage in 12-tone equal temperament musical system
$2{\sqrt {2}}$	Base $2{\sqrt {2}}$
$-{\frac {3}{2}}$	Base $-{\frac {3}{2}}$	a negative rational non-integer base
$-{\sqrt {2}}$	Base $-{\sqrt {2}}$	a negative non-integer base, related to base 2
${\sqrt {10}}$	Base ${\sqrt {10}}$	related to decimal
$2{\sqrt {3}}$	Base $2{\sqrt {3}}$	related to duodecimal
φ	Golden ratio base	Early Beta encoder[46]
ρ	Plastic number base
ψ	Supergolden ratio base
$1+{\sqrt {2}}$	Silver ratio base
e	Base $e$	Lowest radix economy
π	Base $\pi$
$e$ $π$	Base $e\pi$
$e^{\pi }$	Base $e^{\pi }$

n-adic number

Base	Name	Usage
2	Dyadic number
3	Triadic number
4	Tetradic number	the same as dyadic number
5	Pentadic number
6	Hexadic number	not a field
7	Heptadic number
8	Octadic number	the same as dyadic number
9	Enneadic number	the same as triadic number
10	Decadic number	not a field
11	Hendecadic number
12	Dodecadic number	not a field

Mixed radix

Factorial number system {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, ...}
Even double factorial number system {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, ...}
Odd double factorial number system {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, ...}
Primorial number system {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, ...}
Fibonorial number system {1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, ...}
{60, 60, 24, 7} in timekeeping
{60, 60, 24, 30 (or 31 or 28 or 29), 12, 10, 10, 10} in timekeeping
(12, 20) traditional English monetary system (£sd)
(20, 18, 13) Maya timekeeping

Other

Quote notation
Redundant binary representation
Hereditary base-n notation
Asymmetric numeral systems optimized for non-uniform probability distribution of symbols
Combinatorial number system

Non-positional notation

All known numeral systems developed before the Babylonian numerals are non-positional,[47]<ref>Chrisomalis calls the Babylonian system "the first positional system ever"}} as are many developed later, such as the Roman numerals. The French Cistercian monks created their own numeral system.

References

Everson, Michael (July 25, 2007). "Proposal to add two numbers for the Phoenician script" (PDF). UTC Document Register. Unicode Consortium. L2/07-206 (WG2 N3284).
Cajori, Florian (September 1928). A History Of Mathematical Notations Vol I. The Open Court Company. p. 18. Retrieved June 5, 2017.
Chrisomalis, Stephen (January 18, 2010). Numerical Notation: A Comparative History. Cambridge University Press. pp. 135–136. ISBN 978-0-521-87818-0.
Chrisomalis 2010, p. 200.
"Burmese/Myanmar script and pronunciation". Omniglot. Retrieved June 5, 2017.
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Multiplication Tables of Various Bases, p. 45, Michael Thomas de Vlieger, Dozenal Society of America
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Das, Debasis; Lanjewar, U.A. (January 2012). "Realistic Approach of Strange Number System from Unodecimal to Vigesimal" (PDF). International Journal of Computer Science and Telecommunications. London: Sysbase Solution Ltd. 3 (1): 13.
Rawat, Saurabh; Sah, Anushree (May 2013). "Subtraction in Traditional and Strange Number System by r's and r-1's Compliments". International Journal of Computer Applications. 70 (23): 13–17. doi:10.5120/12206-7640. ... unodecimal, duodecimal, tridecimal, quadrodecimal, pentadecimal, heptadecimal, octodecimal, nona decimal, vigesimal and further are discussed...
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Rawat 2013.
HP 9100A/B programming, HP Museum
Free Patents Online
Debasis 2012, p. 14.
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Eells, Walter Crosby (October 14, 2004). "Number Systems of the North American Indians". In Anderson, Marlow; Katz, Victor; Wilson, Robin (eds.). Sherlock Holmes in Babylon: And Other Tales of Mathematical History. Mathematical Association of America. p. 89. ISBN 978-0-88385-546-1 – via Google Books. Quinary-vigesimal. This is most frequent. The Greenland Eskimo says 'other hand two' for 7, 'first foot two' for 12, 'other foot two' for 17, and similar combinations to 20, 'man ended.' The Unalit is also quinary to twenty, which is 'man completed.' ...
Chrisomalis 2010, p. 200: "The early origin of bar-and-dot numeration alongside the Middle Formative Mesoamerican scripts, the quinary-vigesimal structure of the system, and the general increase in the frequency and complexity of numeral expressions over time all point to its indigenous development.".
Laycock, Donald (1975). "Observations on Number Systems and Semantics". In Wurm, Stephen (ed.). New Guinea Area Languages and Language Study, I: Papuan Languages and the New Guinea Linguistic Scene. Pacific Linguistics C-38. Canberra: Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University. pp. 219–233.
Dibbell, Julian (2010). "Introduction". The Best Technology Writing 2010. Yale University Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-300-16565-4. There's even a hexavigesimal digital code—our own twenty-six symbol variant of the ancient Latin alphabet, which the Romans derived in turn from the quadravigesimal version used by the ancient Greeks.
Young, Brian; Faris, Tom; Armogida, Luigi (2019). "A nomenclature for sequence-based forensic DNA analysis". Genetics. Forensic Science International. 42: 14–20. […] 2) the hexadecimal output of the hash function is converted to hexavigesimal (base-26); 3) letters in the hexavigesimal number are capitalized, while all numerals are left unchanged; 4) the order of the characters is reversed so that the hexavigesimal digits appear […]
"Base 26 Cipher (Number ⬌ Words) - Online Decoder, Encoder".
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Grannis, Shaun J.; Overhage, J. Marc; McDonald, Clement J. (2002), "Analysis of identifier performance using a deterministic linkage algorithm", Proceedings. AMIA Symposium: 305–309, PMC 2244404, PMID 12463836.
Stephens, Kenneth Rod (1996), Visual Basic Algorithms: A Developer's Sourcebook of Ready-to-run Code, Wiley, p. 215, ISBN 9780471134183.
Sallows, Lee (1993), "Base 27: the key to a new gematria", Word Ways, 26 (2): 67–77.
Gódor, Balázs (2006). "World-wide user identification in seven characters with unique number mapping". Networks 2006: 12th International Telecommunications Network Strategy and Planning Symposium. IEEE. ISBN 1-4244-0952-7. This article proposes the Unique Number Mapping as an identification scheme, that could replace the E.164 numbers, could be used both with PSTN and VoIP terminals and makes use of the elements of the ENUM technology and the hexatrigesimal number system. […] To have the shortest IDs, we should use the greatest possible number system, which is the hexatrigesimal. Here the place values correspond to powers of 36...
Balagadde1, Robert Ssali; Premchand, Parvataneni (2016). The Structured Compact Tag-Set for Luganda. International Journal on Natural Language Computing (IJNLC). Vol. 5. Concord Numbers used in the categorisation of Luganda words encoded using either Hexatrigesimal or Duotrigesimal, standard positional numbering systems. […] We propose Hexatrigesimal system to capture numeric information exceeding 10 for adaptation purposes for other Bantu languages or other agglutinative languages.
"Base52". GitHub. Retrieved January 3, 2016.
"Base56". Retrieved January 3, 2016.
"Base57". GitHub. Retrieved January 3, 2016.
"Base57". GitHub. Retrieved January 22, 2019.
"The Base58 Encoding Scheme". Internet Engineering Task Force. November 27, 2019. Archived from the original on August 12, 2020. Retrieved August 12, 2020. Thanks to Satoshi Nakamoto for inventing the Base58 encoding format
"NewBase60". Retrieved January 3, 2016.
"Base92". GitHub. Retrieved January 3, 2016.
"Base93". September 26, 2013. Retrieved February 13, 2017.
"Base94". Retrieved January 3, 2016.
"base95 Numeric System". Archived from the original on February 7, 2016. Retrieved January 3, 2016.
Nasar, Sylvia (2001). A Beautiful Mind. Simon and Schuster. pp. 333–6. ISBN 0-7432-2457-4.
Ward, Rachel (2008), "On Robustness Properties of Beta Encoders and Golden Ratio Encoders", IEEE Transactions on Information Theory, 54 (9): 4324–4334, arXiv:0806.1083, Bibcode:2008arXiv0806.1083W, doi:10.1109/TIT.2008.928235, S2CID 12926540
Chrisomalis 2010, p. 254: Chrisomalis calls the Babylonian system "the first positional system ever".

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[1] Everson, Michael (July 25, 2007). "Proposal to add two numbers for the Phoenician script" (PDF). UTC Document Register. Unicode Consortium. L2/07-206 (WG2 N3284).

[Cajori-2] Cajori, Florian (September 1928). A History Of Mathematical Notations Vol I. The Open Court Company. p. 18. Retrieved June 5, 2017.

[3] Chrisomalis, Stephen (January 18, 2010). Numerical Notation: A Comparative History. Cambridge University Press. pp. 135–136. ISBN 978-0-521-87818-0.

[FOOTNOTEChrisomalis2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidux--OWgWvBQCpgPA200_p._200]-4] Chrisomalis 2010, p. 200.

[5] "Burmese/Myanmar script and pronunciation". Omniglot. Retrieved June 5, 2017.

[6] For the mixed roots of the word "hexadecimal", see Epp, Susanna (2010), Discrete Mathematics with Applications (4th ed.), Cengage Learning, p. 91, ISBN 9781133168669.

[7] Multiplication Tables of Various Bases, p. 45, Michael Thomas de Vlieger, Dozenal Society of America

[8] The History of Arithmetic, Louis Charles Karpinski, 200pp, Rand McNally & Company, 1925.

[9] Histoire universelle des chiffres, Georges Ifrah, Robert Laffont, 1994.

[10] The Universal History of Numbers: From prehistory to the invention of the computer, Georges Ifrah, ISBN 0-471-39340-1, John Wiley and Sons Inc., New York, 2000. Translated from the French by David Bellos, E.F. Harding, Sophie Wood and Ian Monk

[11] Ulrich, Werner (November 1957). "Non-binary error correction codes". Bell System Technical Journal. 36 (6): 1364–1365.

[12] Das, Debasis; Lanjewar, U.A. (January 2012). "Realistic Approach of Strange Number System from Unodecimal to Vigesimal" (PDF). International Journal of Computer Science and Telecommunications. London: Sysbase Solution Ltd. 3 (1): 13.

[13] Rawat, Saurabh; Sah, Anushree (May 2013). "Subtraction in Traditional and Strange Number System by r's and r-1's Compliments". International Journal of Computer Applications. 70 (23): 13–17. doi:10.5120/12206-7640. ... unodecimal, duodecimal, tridecimal, quadrodecimal, pentadecimal, heptadecimal, octodecimal, nona decimal, vigesimal and further are discussed...

[14] Overmann, Karenleigh A (2020). "The curious idea that Māori once counted by elevens, and the insights it still holds for cross-cultural numerical research". Journal of the Polynesian Society. 129 (1): 59–84. doi:10.15286/jps.129.1.59-84. Retrieved July 24, 2020.

[THOMAS-15] Thomas, N.W (1920). "Duodecimal base of numeration". Man. 20 (1): 56–60. doi:10.2307/2840036. JSTOR 2840036. Retrieved July 25, 2020.

[FOOTNOTEDebasis201213-16] Debasis 2012, p. 13.

[FOOTNOTERawat2013-17] Rawat 2013.

[18] HP 9100A/B programming, HP Museum

[19] Free Patents Online

[FOOTNOTEDebasis201214-20] Debasis 2012, p. 14.

[Nykl-21] Nykl, Alois Richard (September 1926). "The Quinary-Vigesimal System of Counting in Europe, Asia, and America". Language. 2 (3): 165–173. doi:10.2307/408742. JSTOR 408742. OCLC 50709582 – via Google Books. p. 165: A student of the American Indian languages is naturally led to investigate the wide-spread use of the quinary-vigesimal system of counting which he meets in the whole territory from Alaska along the Pacific Coast to the Orinoco and the Amazon.

[22] Eells, Walter Crosby (October 14, 2004). "Number Systems of the North American Indians". In Anderson, Marlow; Katz, Victor; Wilson, Robin (eds.). Sherlock Holmes in Babylon: And Other Tales of Mathematical History. Mathematical Association of America. p. 89. ISBN 978-0-88385-546-1 – via Google Books. Quinary-vigesimal. This is most frequent. The Greenland Eskimo says 'other hand two' for 7, 'first foot two' for 12, 'other foot two' for 17, and similar combinations to 20, 'man ended.' The Unalit is also quinary to twenty, which is 'man completed.' ...

[FOOTNOTEChrisomalis2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidux--OWgWvBQCpgPA200_p._200:]_"The_early_origin_of_bar-and-dot_numeration_alongside_the_Middle_Formative_Mesoamerican_scripts,_the_quinary-vigesimal_structure_of_the_system,_and_the_general_increase_in_the_frequency_and_complexity_of_numeral_expressions_over_time_all_point_to_its_indigenous_development."-23] Chrisomalis 2010, p. 200: "The early origin of bar-and-dot numeration alongside the Middle Formative Mesoamerican scripts, the quinary-vigesimal structure of the system, and the general increase in the frequency and complexity of numeral expressions over time all point to its indigenous development.".

[24] Laycock, Donald (1975). "Observations on Number Systems and Semantics". In Wurm, Stephen (ed.). New Guinea Area Languages and Language Study, I: Papuan Languages and the New Guinea Linguistic Scene. Pacific Linguistics C-38. Canberra: Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University. pp. 219–233.

[Dibbell-25] Dibbell, Julian (2010). "Introduction". The Best Technology Writing 2010. Yale University Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-300-16565-4. There's even a hexavigesimal digital code—our own twenty-six symbol variant of the ancient Latin alphabet, which the Romans derived in turn from the quadravigesimal version used by the ancient Greeks.

[26] Young, Brian; Faris, Tom; Armogida, Luigi (2019). "A nomenclature for sequence-based forensic DNA analysis". Genetics. Forensic Science International. 42: 14–20. […] 2) the hexadecimal output of the hash function is converted to hexavigesimal (base-26); 3) letters in the hexavigesimal number are capitalized, while all numerals are left unchanged; 4) the order of the characters is reversed so that the hexavigesimal digits appear […]

[27] "Base 26 Cipher (Number ⬌ Words) - Online Decoder, Encoder".

[28] Laycock, Donald (1975). "Observations on Number Systems and Semantics". In Wurm, Stephen (ed.). New Guinea Area Languages and Language Study, I: Papuan Languages and the New Guinea Linguistic Scene. Pacific Linguistics C-38. Canberra: Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University. pp. 219–233.

[29] Saxe, Geoffrey B.; Moylan, Thomas (1982). "The development of measurement operations among the Oksapmin of Papua New Guinea". Child Development. 53 (5): 1242–1248. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1982.tb04161.x. JSTOR 1129012..

[30] Grannis, Shaun J.; Overhage, J. Marc; McDonald, Clement J. (2002), "Analysis of identifier performance using a deterministic linkage algorithm", Proceedings. AMIA Symposium: 305–309, PMC 2244404, PMID 12463836.

[31] Stephens, Kenneth Rod (1996), Visual Basic Algorithms: A Developer's Sourcebook of Ready-to-run Code, Wiley, p. 215, ISBN 9780471134183.

[32] Sallows, Lee (1993), "Base 27: the key to a new gematria", Word Ways, 26 (2): 67–77.

[33] Gódor, Balázs (2006). "World-wide user identification in seven characters with unique number mapping". Networks 2006: 12th International Telecommunications Network Strategy and Planning Symposium. IEEE. ISBN 1-4244-0952-7. This article proposes the Unique Number Mapping as an identification scheme, that could replace the E.164 numbers, could be used both with PSTN and VoIP terminals and makes use of the elements of the ENUM technology and the hexatrigesimal number system. […] To have the shortest IDs, we should use the greatest possible number system, which is the hexatrigesimal. Here the place values correspond to powers of 36...

[34] Balagadde1, Robert Ssali; Premchand, Parvataneni (2016). The Structured Compact Tag-Set for Luganda. International Journal on Natural Language Computing (IJNLC). Vol. 5. Concord Numbers used in the categorisation of Luganda words encoded using either Hexatrigesimal or Duotrigesimal, standard positional numbering systems. […] We propose Hexatrigesimal system to capture numeric information exceeding 10 for adaptation purposes for other Bantu languages or other agglutinative languages.

[35] "Base52". GitHub. Retrieved January 3, 2016.

[36] "Base56". Retrieved January 3, 2016.

[37] "Base57". GitHub. Retrieved January 3, 2016.

[38] "Base57". GitHub. Retrieved January 22, 2019.

[base58-39] "The Base58 Encoding Scheme". Internet Engineering Task Force. November 27, 2019. Archived from the original on August 12, 2020. Retrieved August 12, 2020. Thanks to Satoshi Nakamoto for inventing the Base58 encoding format

[40] "NewBase60". Retrieved January 3, 2016.

[41] "Base92". GitHub. Retrieved January 3, 2016.

[42] "Base93". September 26, 2013. Retrieved February 13, 2017.

[43] "Base94". Retrieved January 3, 2016.

[44] "base95 Numeric System". Archived from the original on February 7, 2016. Retrieved January 3, 2016.

[45] Nasar, Sylvia (2001). A Beautiful Mind. Simon and Schuster. pp. 333–6. ISBN 0-7432-2457-4.

[46] Ward, Rachel (2008), "On Robustness Properties of Beta Encoders and Golden Ratio Encoders", IEEE Transactions on Information Theory, 54 (9): 4324–4334, arXiv:0806.1083, Bibcode:2008arXiv0806.1083W, doi:10.1109/TIT.2008.928235, S2CID 12926540

[FOOTNOTEChrisomalis2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkXZhBAAAQBAJpgPA254_p._254:]_Chrisomalis_calls_the_Babylonian_system_"the_first_positional_system_ever"-47] Chrisomalis 2010, p. 254: Chrisomalis calls the Babylonian system "the first positional system ever".

List of numeral systems

By culture / time period

By type of notation

Standard positional numeral systems

Bijective numeration

Signed-digit representation

Negative bases

Complex bases

Non-integer bases

n-adic number

Mixed radix

Other

Non-positional notation

See also

References