Big Five personality traits and culture

There are many similarities in Big Five trait expression across cultures. For example, differences between men and women in Big Five traits, although small compared to variation within gender, do seem to exist consistently across a number of cultures. In general, women tend to score higher on neuroticism and agreeableness.[9] Additionally, longitudinal studies have found consistency in personality changes that occur across the lifetime, in both adults and adolescents.[10][11] Research in Big Five traits in American and Flemish teens showed similar changes in personality from ages 12 to 18.[11] In addition, the period from young adulthood to middle adulthood is associated with increases in Conscientiousness and Agreeableness and decreases in Neuroticism, Openness, and Extraversion in several countries, including the United States, Germany, Italy, Portugal, Croatia, and South Korea.[10]

It is also important to note that when examining the average personality traits of individuals in cultural groups, differences between cultures seem to exist.[12] Some research compares one culture against another culture on a specific Big Five personality trait; Filipinos, for example, score relatively low on Neuroticism on average, compared to other cultures measured, while scoring in the middle of the scale on Extraversion.[12] Americans, New Zealanders, and Canadians score higher on Extraversion, while scoring moderately on Neuroticism.[12] These differences, however, exist on average, and there is still a large amount of variability in Big Five personality traits that exists within a particular culture.[12] Gender differences in personality tend to be larger in developed societies (such as France and the United States) compared to less-developed countries (such as Zimbabwe and Malaysia).[4][9] However, although these findings are quite robust, one consideration is that these differences between cultures might be the result of translation errors, differences in self-presentation styles, or even genetic differences.[4][6]

Furthermore, although broad evidence suggests that the Big Five traits do measure meaningful constructs across a great deal of cultures, it is also true that expressions of mean levels of personality are necessarily influenced by culture.[6] That is to say, all individuals scoring high on a certain Big Five personality trait such as Extraversion are likely to enjoy socialization with others, but where, when, and with whom they socialize is necessarily influenced by their cultural milieu.[6] Thus, it may be most productive to think of the Five Factor Model as a framework for beginning to explore systematically individual differences in behavior within a particular culture.[6]

One proposed alternative to the Big Five that has been developed via cross-cultural research is the HEXACO model.[17] This model builds on the research of the Big Five traits, with the novel addition of a trait named Honesty-Humility.[18] Individuals high in the trait of honesty-humility are associated with the characteristics of straightforwardness, modesty, and fairness.[18] In addition, the HEXACO model contains slightly rotated versions of two of the Big Five traits (Agreeableness and Neuroticism) such that sentimentality/toughness becomes part of the old Neuroticism trait (and renamed Emotionality) and anger/even-temper becomes associated with the new Agreeableness trait.[18] This rotation creates less overlap among the six personality traits of the HEXACO, and allows for better prediction of behaviors such as deceit without hostility (e.g. social monitoring).[18] Support for the HEXACO model has been found in multiple countries, including Dutch, French, German, Italian, Korean, Polish, and English samples.[18]

Chinese psychologists have attempted to develop an indigenous measure of personality, named the Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory (CPAI).[4] Traits in the CPAI model have also collectively been referred to as "Interpersonal Relatedness," and include:

• Harmony (one's inner peace of mind, interpersonal harmony, etc.)
• Ren Qing (relationship orientation, which covers adherence to cultural norms of interaction such as those based on reciprocity)
• Modernization (contrasted with attitudes toward traditional Chinese beliefs)
• Thrift vs. Extravagance
• Ah-Q Mentality (defensiveness, externalization of blame)
• Face (social behaviors done in order to enhance or avoid damaging one's reputation and honor)[8][19]

Support for this model of personality was originally developed in studies in mainland China and Hong Kong, China, but the existence of the Interpersonal Relatedness dimension of personality has also been found in samples from Singapore, Hawaii, and the Midwestern United States.[8]

The Enneagram of Personality includes nine different personality types which helps people to better understand their personality and character.[14] The Enneagram types include types one through nine, and each type has different characteristics associated with it.[14] There is evidence that the Enneagram has been used by therapists to help their clients.[14][20] Type one is the reformer with traits such as principled and controlled. Type two is the Helper with traits of generous and people-pleasing. Type three is the Achiever being driven and image conscious. Type 4 is the Individualist with traits such as dramatic and self absorbed. Type five is the Innovator being innovative and perceptive. Type six is the Loyalist who is described as responsible and anxious. Type seven is the Enthusiast with characteristics such as spontaneous and scattered. Type eight is the Challenger described as self-confident and confrontational. Finally the last type is type nine the Peacemaker with traits such as agreeable and receptive.[20] The Enneagram can be applied to people of all genders, races, ages, religion, etc. The goal of the Enneagram types is to identify a type based on the type as a whole. This includes the core fear of type, the positive characteristics, and the negative. It is designed to help one see themselves on a deeper level.[21]

The Enneagram is similar to the Big Five Personality model in that it focuses on nine different personalities.[14] There has been research done that mentions how the personalities on the Enneagram are similar to those within the Five Factor Model.[14] Through several studies, it has been determined that the Five Factor model is similar to several of the Enneagram personality types.[14] Several of the Enneagram types were each related to personality traits of the Five Factor Model which reveals that the Enneagram is accurate.[14]

The Enneagram model focuses more on an individual's characteristics whereas the Five Factor Model focuses on the five specific traits.[14] Another difference between the Five Factor Model and the Enneagram is that the Enneagram relates to people in more of a spiritual way, and even can encourage personal growth.[14] The Enneagram is also greatly used in the workplace and is used a tool for team building. The different types allows colleagues to understand each other better. The Enneagram has also become very prominent in career counseling and is used as a tool to discover careers most agreeable with a person based on their type.[22] The Enneagram uses language that is more related to Cognitive Behavioral Therapy and each of the Enneagram types had a different role.[14] Each Enneagram type includes multiple characteristics.[14] The Enneagram hasn't been used as often cross-culturally.[14]

A limitation of the Enneagram types and individuals can score highly in multiple types. In the model the highest one is chosen but it could only be a score difference between two types. There needs to be future research on what it means for an individual to score highly in multiple types.[20]

Another limitation of the Enneagram types is when tested, the predictive validity of the different types offered only a slight improvement over chance, in a study conducted at Loyola Chicago.[23]

Other researchers have found different personality dimensions that may exists in different cultural contexts.[8] For example, one study of a Filipino sample used both indigenous Filipino personality scales and the NEO-PI-R, and although there was overlap between the Filipino scales and the Five Factor Model, researchers also found indigenous factors such as Pagkamadaldal (Social Curiosity) and Pagkamapagsapalaran (Risk-Taking) that had predictive power greater than the Five Factor Model alone.[8][24] Other research using indigenous approaches to traits has taken place in countries such as India, Korea, and Greece.[8] A Chinese factor analysis of traits in 2009 found seven factors (three or four of which resembled Big Five traits). A similar study in Spain in 1997 found seven Spanish personality factors. However, the seven factors were not the same across the two countries.[4] Thus, it is clear that although there is strong support for the Big Five across cultures, some research suggests the existence of other traits besides simply the Big Five, which may ultimately improve our understanding of personality across different cultures.