Cherokee grammar

Cherokee or Tsalagi (ᏣᎳᎩ ᎦᏬᏂᎯᏍᏗ, Tsalagi Gawonihisdi [dʒalaˈɡî ɡawónihisˈdî]) is an endangered-to-moribund Iroquoian language and the native language of the Cherokee people.

All presented prefixes and suffixes will be in the Latin script.

General

Cherokee is a polysynthetic verb-heavy nominative–accusative language with a non-productive incorporation system. It features both suffixes and prefixes, in contrary to agglutinative languages though, these interact drastically with their surroundings.

Verbs

Verbs are the most important part and obligatory for a Cherokee sentence. There are two verb-classes comparable to different conjugation types in Latin or Spanish for that their pronoun-prefixes differ in form.[1]

Structure

To analyze the word formation, a slot system is suited the best. In that sense, every verb possesses the following basic slots.[2] Obligationary parts are marked in bold.

prefixes

verbstem

suffixes


initial	pronouns	reflexive
-3	-2	-1


non-final	final
1	2

Please note that for every following table only the basic form, sometimes/mostly even without a translation, will be listed to not overload the visual input. Phonemical changes and the meaning depend heavily on context and are better described individually in the following sections. The basic morpheme will be displayed in bold for disambiguation. Here is an overview for the depiction of the context and the following changes:


Symbol	Meaning
_C	before a consonant
_V	before a vowel
C_	after a consonant
V_	etc.
=	_ becomes _
X	zero-marking
_x	deletes the following phoneme (often because of merging)
+	in cooperation with

Initial prefixes (-3)

The initial prefixes are optionally, but may not occur if they inhabit the same slot or convey contradictive ideas.[3]


-7	-6	-5	-4	-3	-2	-1
y	w	n	de	da	i	ga
j				di		e


slot	prefix	_C	_V	_w	_h	_i	-i	y/n/w_	y/n/w_h	_a	_da/di	_ga	_u	X_	meaning	+	marks
-7	y	yi	y	yu	hy_x										-uncertainty -if-clause -negation	X (subordinate clause) hla+
-7	j	ji	j	ju											-relative clauses -specific past -negative imperative -repetitive imperative	X (time-word) hlesdi+ X	can also not occur with ga-
-6	w	wi	w		hw_x										-face/motion/distance away from speaker -"let" (non 2 person) -dative	X X -el
-5	n	ni	n		hn_x										-lateral position -"already" -negative (relative clause) -"without"	X (past tense/fut.progr./habitual) -na +j(to be) X
-4	de	de	d			de_x	do_x	di	t_x		do				-plural inanimate_objects/acts	X
-4	de	de	j			de_x	do_x	di	t_x	di_x	do			e-	-plural inanimate_objects/acts	(imperative/infinitive)
-3	da	da	day		t_x	da_x	dv_x								future	-i (future tense)
		di	j												future	-esdi (habitual)
		da	day							dv_x					motion towards speaker
		di	j							di_X						(habitual/progressive/reportative)
	di	di	j			di_x				di_X
-2	i	i	X3									v			-"again"		can be substituted by high pitch
-2	i	v	X3												-"again"	-vi	can be substituted by high pitch
-1	ga	ga	gay							gv_x					-"since"
		ge														(2nd person)
			gvw										gvwa_x			(3rd person)

Pronoun prefixes (-2)

As said before, the choice of the pronoun depends on the verb-class, it may either follow set A or set B (also known as set I and set II). These are only present if the verb is intransitive, for transitive verbs one joined set is used. Mark that the exclusive forms are generated by taking the corresponding 2nd person form and adding an "O".

Set I (A)

(The structure is _C | _V)


Person	Singular	Dual		Plural
Person	Singular	inclusive	exclusive	inclusive	exclusive
1	ji \| g	ini \| in	osdi \| osd	idi \| id	oji \| oj
2	hi \| h	sdi \| sd		iji \| ij
3	ga/a \| X	ani \| an

Set II (B)


Person	Singular	Dual		Plural
Person	Singular	inclusive	exclusive	inclusive	exclusive
1	agi \| agw	gini \| gin	ogini \| ogin	igi \| ig	ogi \| og
2	ja \| j	desdi \| desd		deji \| dej
3	u \| X	uni \| un

Compound pronouns

Cherokee verbs mark both subject as well as the direct object. Here the animacy of a third person object is marked. A prominent feature of transitive pronouns is the -y- insertion. Often the pronoun relationship is both ways and can be used for either action, ambiguity is ensured by patterns of changes within the verb stem.

1st person singular object - 'me'

Person	Singular	Dual	Plural
2	sgi \| sgw	sgini \| sgin	isgi \| isgiy
3	agwa \| agw	gvgi \| gvgw

2nd person singular object 'thee'

Person	Singular	Dual	Plural
Person	Singular	exclusive!	exclusive!
1	gv \| gvy	sdv \| sdvy	ijv \| ijvy
3	ja \| j	geji \| gej

Easily recognizable are the forms of the first-to-second person plural and dual. They are produced via a vowel alternation from the second person forms in which former -i- now wields -v-.

3rd person singular animate object 'the other'

Person	Singular	Dual		Plural
Person	Singular	inclusive	exclusive	inclusive	exclusive
1	ji \| jiy	eni \| en	osdi \| osd	edi \| ed	oji \| oj
2	hi \| hiy	esdi \| esd		eji \| ej
3	ga/a \| g	A: ani \| an B: uni \| un

These are basically the set A pronouns, but with a -y- insertion in the singular and an -e- prefix in all forms where the second person is active and non-singular.

3rd person singular inanimate object 'it' set A

Person	Singular	Dual		Plural
Person	Singular	inclusive	exclusive	inclusive	exclusive
1	ji \| g	ini \| in	osdi \| osd	idi \| id	oji \| oj
2	hi \| h	sdi \| sd		iji \| ij
3	ga/a \| g	ani \| an

3rd person singular inanimate object 'it' set B

Person	Singular	Dual		Plural
Person	Singular	inclusive	exclusive	inclusive	exclusive
1	agi \| agw	gini \| gin	ogini \| ogin	igi \| ig	ogi \| og
2	ja \| j	sdi \| sd		iji \| ij
3	u \| uw	uni \| un

1st person dual inclusive object "us both"

Person	Singular	Plural
3	gini \| gin	gegini \| gegin

These basically stem from the active forms of the corresponding set B pronouns, but now they represent the direct object instead.

1st person dual exclusive object "me and him/her"

Person	Singular	Dual	Plural
2	sgini \| sgin		isgi \| isgiy
3	ogini \| ogin	gogini \| gogin

2nd person dual object "you two"

Person	Singular	Dual	Plural
Person	Singular	exclusive!	exclusive!
1	sdv \| sdvy		ijv \| ijvy
3	sdi \| sd	gesdi \| gesd

1st person plural inclusive object "us (all)"

Person	Singular	Plural
3	igi \| ig	gegi \| geg

1st person plural exclusive object "me and them"

Person	Singular	Dual	Plural
2	isgi \| isgiy
3	ogi \| og	gogi \| gog

2nd person plural object "you (all)"

Person	Singular	Dual	Plural
Person	Singular	exclusive!	exclusive!
1	ijv \| ijvy	iji \| ij
3	iji \| ij	geji \| gej

3rd person plural animate object "them"

Person	Singular	Dual		Plural
Person	Singular	inclusive	exclusive	inclusive	exclusive
1	gaji \| gajiy	geni \| gen	gosdi \| gosd	gedi \| ged	goji \| goj
2	gahi \| gahiy	gesdi \| gesd		geji \| gej
3	degi \| deg	A: gani \| gan B: guni \| gun

3rd person plural inanimate object "these things" set A

Person	Singular	Dual		Plural
Person	Singular	inclusive	exclusive	inclusive	exclusive
1	dega \| deg	deni \| den	dosdi \| dosd	dedi \| ded	doji \| doj
2	dehi \| deh	desdi \| desd		deji \| dej
3	degi \| deg	dani \| dan

3rd person plural inanimate object "these things" set B

Person	Singular	Dual		Plural
Person	Singular	inclusive	exclusive	inclusive	exclusive
1	dagi \| dagw	degini \| degin	dogini \| dogin	degi \| deg	dogi \| dog
2	deja \| dej	desdi \| desd		deji \| dej
3	du \| duw	duni \| dun

Reflexive marker (-1)


	_C	_V	_a	u_	number	meaning	+
ada	ada	adad	ad	uda	sg (dl/pl)	reflexive action "oneself"
ada	ada	adad	ad	uda	dl or pl	reciprocative: "each other"	de-

Final and non-final suffixes (1)

The slots of both final and non-final suffixes cannot be properly dissected and thus the attribute final only means that one of these is obligated at all times. For some suffixes even the exact position is disputed amongst native speakers. In the following table final suffixes are marked bold. Because of the sheer amount of suffixes and the number of exceptions it is more efficient for students to learn the most common fused forms first (mostly those with -'i). Markers of aspect and tense are found in this category.


1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12	13
gi	is	ilo	dan	ohn	el	idol	e	g	v'i	gwu	sgo	ju
e			dohdan				ihl	idi	e'i			ke
y								i	esdi			na
									o'i			hv
									di			isi
									a			dina
												dv


slot	suffix	_C	_V	_g	s_									meaning	+
slot	suffix					_(any suffix)	_ga	_v'i	_di	_ilo	_el	_a	_i	meaning	+
1	gi	gi	gis											reversive
	e														(last stem vowel x)
	y														(before last stem vowel)
2	is	is	isis				isiha_xx	isahn	isoh					duplicative
2	is	is	isahn	isis			isiha_xx			is	isan			"become"
3	ilo	ilos	ilo'									iloj		repetitive
4	dan		dan	dis			diha_xx		doh			d		causative/instrumentative
4	dohdan		dohdan	dohdis			dohdiha_xx		dohdoh			dohd		unintentional
5	ohn		ohn	ohvs					ohvs					completive
6	el		el				eha_xx		eh					dative/benefactive
7	idol		idol	idoh					idoh			id		evasive/circumlative
8	e		vs	e					vs			ug	es	"at intervals"/"go sw. to _"
8	ihl		ihl	ihih_x					ihis					"come here to _"
9	g		g		x_h			g						progressive
	idi		idis											pre-incipient	(set B)
	idena													"immediately"
	i	i	is											future
10	v'i					v								past
	v'i					v								future imperative
	e'i					e								reportative
	esdi													future progressive
	o'i					o								habitual
	di													infinitive	(set B)
	a													present
11	gwu													"only, just, still"
12	s(go)													interrogative	(Yes/No)
13	ju													interrogative	(also Yes/No but needs more information)
	ke													"or" interrogative	(second verb; unlike english)
	na													"and what if/about?"
	hv													"but"	(follows sgo)
	isi													"or else"
	dina													concessive imperative
	dv													focus

Nouns

Nouns are often treated as verbs in the manner of to be someone.

Prefixes

The number of prefixes nouns can take is comparably smaller than that of verbs, but since nouns can be treated as verbs with the translation of "to be", the same prefixes as with verbs may be used, if not exchanged with one of the three below.


suffix	_C	_V	_u	meaning
di	di	j	d	plural	(inanimate)
a				human
n	ni	n		plural	(animate)

Thus plural words for humans take an(i)- as marker (even if the a was optional).

Conjugation - to be someone

For persons and their belongings normally set A prefixes are used. The second person forms also serve as vocative.

Possession - to belong to someone

Every bodypart has to be possessed, unless it is understood as detached or as a general image for example. The bodyparts take both set A and set B prefixes.

Kinship - to be someone in relation to someone

To explain kinship (or other relationships) the transitive compound pronouns are used. In this case the agent part expresses who it is (ex. I am a father) whilst the formerly patient part indicates to whom the relationship takes place (I-him-father = I, his father).

Suffixes

The same with the prefixes; the presented suffixes are exclusive for nouns, whilst these can also take numerous verb suffixes.



i	gwu	sgo	ju
hi		na	ke
ha			hv
ya'i			dv

The coverbal suffixes are applied after the pure noun suffixes.


suffix	a_	o_
'i	x_o'i / x_v'i		locative/"place"
hi	x_ohi	x_v'i
ha			partitive/"only"
ya'i	(x_iya'i)		"pure", "real"

Adjectives

Adjectives can also be treated as verbs of certain qualities, they precede the noun they qualify.

Adverbs

Adverbs are essentially adjectives preceding the qualified verb.

References

"pronouns".{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
"structure".{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
"initial prefixes".{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)

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[1] "pronouns".{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)

[2] "structure".{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)

[3] "initial prefixes".{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)

Person	Singular	Dual	Plural
2	sgi \| sgw	sgini \| sgin	isgi \| isgiy
3	agwa \| agw	gvgi \| gvgw