List of driver-less train systems

This is a list of driver-less train systems, which are capable of GoA3 and GoA4 (GoA3+) according to the Grade of Automation classifications specified by the standard IEC 62290‐1. These are explained diagrammatically by the UITP. This list focuses heavily on trains in the classical sense used for large-scale railways for passengers and freight but does include a few people mover systems. For a similar list for GoA2, see list of semi-automated train systems.

Automated track-bound traffic
Automatic train operation
Lists of automated train systems
Related topics

Grade-of-Automation 3 systems

These systems are capable of driverless train operation (DTO), although some operators may choose to staff trains anyway.

GoA3 – Americas
Whereas Docklands Light Railway trains are driverless and do not have a separate cab, there is provision for manual operation
Country/region Name of system Line Date System Notes
Brazil BrazilSalvador MetroLine 12014SelTrac[1][lower-alpha 1]
Line 22016
São Paulo Metro Line 3 (Red)10 March 1979ATO [lower-alpha 2]
United States United StatesWalt Disney World Monorail System2016SelTrac

GoA3 – Asia
Country/region Name of system Line Date System Notes
China China (Mainland)Beijing SubwayCapital Airport Express19 July 2008Alstom Urbalis 400
Shanghai Pudong Airport APM16 September 2019FITSCO JeRail
Shanghai MetroLine 5June 2018Thales, Shanghai Electric TSTCBTC2.0Initially operated in GoA1 (Manual operation) [lower-alpha 3][3]
Line 1730 December 2017CASCO TRANAVI[4]
Wuhan MetroYangluo line26 December 2017CASCO[5]
Indonesia IndonesiaSoekarno–Hatta Airport Skytrain2020SiLSafe 5000[lower-alpha 4]
Japan JapanDisney Resort Line27 July 2001
Pakistan Pakistan Lahore Metro Orange Line 25 October 2020 CASCO (Alstom)
Singapore SingaporeSentosa ExpressNovember 2017Hitachi Moving Block Wireless CBTC

GoA3 – Europe
Country/region Name of system Line Date System Notes
Bulgaria BulgariaSofia MetroLine 326 August 2020Siemens Trainguard MT CBTC [6]
Hungary HungaryBudapest MetroLine 22013Siemens Trainguard MT CBTC[lower-alpha 5]
Spain SpainBarcelona MetroLine 112009Siemens Trainguard MT CBTC
United Kingdom United KingdomDocklands Light Railway31 August 1987SelTrac[lower-alpha 6]


Grade-of-Automation 4 systems

These systems are capable of unattended train operation (UTO), although some operators may choose to staff trains anyway.

GoA4 – Americas
GTAA LINK
Country/region Name of system Line Date System Notes
Brazil BrazilPorto Alegre MetroMetro-Airport Connection10 August 2013Aeromovel
São Paulo Metro Line 1 (Blue) 3 July 2022 Alstom Urbalis CBTC [7]
Line 2 (Green)2 March 2020
Line 3 (Red) December 2022 (Under Conversion)
Line 4 (Yellow)25 May 2010Siemens Trainguard MT CBTCFirst completely driverless metro line in Latin America.[8]
Line 5 (Lilac)12 March 2017Bombardier CITYFLO 650[lower-alpha 7]
Line 15 (Silver)30 August 2014Bombardier CITYFLO 650
Canada CanadaLINK Train6 July 2006DCC Doppelmayr Cable Car
SkyTrainExpo Line11 December 1985SelTracThe longest driverless network in the Americas, at 79.6 km.[9]
Millennium Line7 January 2002
Canada Line17 August 2009
REM (Réseau Express Metropolitain) 2023 (Under Construction) Alstom Metropolis
Chile ChileSantiago MetroLine 322 January 2019SelTrac
Line 62 November 2017
Mexico MexicoAerotrén2007DCC Doppelmayr Cable Car
United States United StatesAeroTrain20 January 2010SelTrac
Airport Transit System6 May 1993VAL system
AirTrain JFK17 December 2003SelTrac
AirTrain Newark31 May 1996SelTrac
AirTrain SFO24 February 2003Bombardier CITYFLO 650
Aria Express1 December 2009DCC Doppelmayr Cable Car
Bay Area Rapid TransitBART to OAK line22 November 2014DCC Doppelmayr Cable Car
Cincinnati Airport People Mover9 June 1994Otis Hovair
Detroit People Mover31 July 1987SelTrac
DFW Skylink21 May 2005Bombardier CITYFLO 650
DIA Automated Guideway Transit28 February 1995Bombardier CITYFLO 550
ExpressTram24 February 2002Otis Hovair
George Bush Intercontinental Airport People MoversSkyway24 May 1999Bombardier CITYFLO 550
Subway1969WEDway[lower-alpha 8]
Getty Center Tram1997Otis Hovair
Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport People MoversThe Plane Train21 September 1980Bombardier CITYFLO 550
ATL Skytrain8 December 2009
Huntsville Hospital Tram System19 June 2002Otis Hovair
Jacksonville Skyway1989SelTrac
Las Vegas Monorail2004SelTrac
Mandalay Bay Tram9 April 1999DCC Doppelmayr Cable Car
McCarran International Airport Automated People MoversGreen Line1985Bombardier CITYFLO 650
Blue Line1998
Red Line2012
Memphis Suspension Railway1982
Miami International Airport People MoversMIA e Train1980MiniMetro[lower-alpha 9]
Skytrain15 September 2010Mitsubishi Crystal Mover
MIA Mover9 September 2011
Miami Metromover17 April 1986Bombardier CITYFLO 550
Minneapolis–St. Paul Airport TramsHub Tram3 April 2001Otis Hovair
'C' Concourse People Mover5 May 2004
Morgantown Personal Rapid Transit1975
Orlando International Airport People MoversAirside systems1981Mitsubishi Crystal Mover
Intermodal Terminal system2017
PHX Sky Train8 April 2013Bombardier CITYFLO 650
Pittsburgh International Airport People Mover1 October 1992Bombardier CITYFLO 650
Satellite Transit System1973Bombardier CITYFLO 650
SMF Automated People Mover6 October 2011Bombardier CITYFLO 650
Tampa International Airport People MoversAirside systems1971Bombardier CITYFLO 550
Monorail1991
SkyConnect2018 Mitsubishi Crystal Mover
Navajo Mine RailroadGE E60 electric locomotives[lower-alpha 10]
Venezuela VenezuelaCabletren Bolivariano14 August 2013DCC Doppelmayr Cable Car

GoA4 – Asia
A Magenta Line Train waiting at a station in Delhi
Country/region Name of system Line Date System Notes
China China (Mainland)Beijing Capital International Airport Terminal 3 People MoverMarch 2008Bombardier CITYFLO 550
Beijing SubwayLine 1131 December 2021
Line 17
Line 19
Yanfang line30 December 2017BTCT[10]
Daxing Airport Express26 September 2019[11]
Chengdu MetroLine 918 December 2020Alstom Urbalis 400[12]
Chongqing Rail TransitBishan rubber-tyred tram16 April 2021BYD SkyShuttle
Jinan MetroLine 226 March 2021[13]
Guangzhou MetroAPM Line8 November 2010Bombardier CITYFLO 650
Nanjing MetroLine 731 December 2022
Nanning MetroLine 516 December 2021[14]
Ningbo Rail TransitLine 528 December 2021[15]
Shanghai MetroLine 1010 April 2010Alstom/CASCO Urbalis 888[16]Initially operated in GoA2 and GoA3, transitioned to GoA4 in 2020[17]
Line 1430 December 2021Thales, Shanghai Electric TSTCBTC2.0[lower-alpha 11][19][3]
Line 1523 January 2021Alstom Urbalis 400[20]
Line 1826 December 2020
Pujiang line31 March 2018Bombardier CITYFLO 650
Shenzhen MetroLine 6 Branch28 November 2022
Line 12
Line 1428 October 2022
Line 1628 December 2022
Line 2028 December 2021CASCO Urbalis 888[21]
Suzhou Rail TransitLine 529 June 2021Siemens Trainguard MT CBTC[22]
Taiyuan MetroLine 226 December 2020
Tianjin MetroLine 828 December 2021[23]
Line 1018 November 2022
Wuhan MetroLine 526 December 2021[24]
Wuhu Rail TransitLine 13 November 2021
Line 228 December 2021
Xi'an Qujiang Sightseeing Monorail2015
Hong Kong Hong KongHong Kong International Airport Automated People Mover6 July 1998SelTrac
MTRDisneyland Resort line1 August 2005SelTracMost trains have an attendant on board
South Island line (East)28 December 2016Alstom Urbalis 400All trains have an attendant on board[25]
India IndiaDelhi MetroPink Line14 March 2018Bombardier CITYFLO 65058.59 km (36.41 mi). Initially with an attendant on board [26]
Magenta Line25 December 2017Nippon Signal SPARCSInitially with an attendant on board
Grey Line4 October 2019Bombardier CITYFLO 650
Mumbai MetroLine 22 April 2022
Line 7
Japan JapanKanazawa Seaside Line5 July 1989
Kobe New TransitPort Island Line5 February 1981World's first GoA4 line
Rokkō Island Line21 February 1990
Linimo6 March 2005World's first unmanned maglev
Osaka MetroNanko Port Town Line20 October 1991Previously used GoA2 from 1981 to 1991
Skyrail Midorizaka Line28 August 1998People Mover monorail
Tokyo Metropolitan Bureau of TransportationNippori-Toneri Liner30 March 2008
Wing Shuttle4 September 1994
Yurikamome1 November 1995Mitsubishi Crystal Mover
Macau MacauMacau Light Rapid TransitTaipa Line10 December 2019[27]
Malaysia Malaysia KLIA Aerotrain1998Bombardier CITYFLO 550
Rapid KLKelana Jaya Line1 September 1998SelTracThe first GoA4 in Malaysia, at 46.4 km (28.8 mi)
Kajang Line16 December 2016Bombardier CITYFLO 650The second GoA4, at 47 km (29 mi)
Ampang Line2017SelTrac[lower-alpha 12]
Sri Petaling Line
Putrajaya Line16 June 2022Bombardier CITYFLO 650The fifth GoA4 and the longest in Malaysia, at 57.7 km (35.9 mi)
Melaka Monorail4 December 2017
Pakistan PakistanLahore MetroOrange Line25 October 2020CRRC Zhuzhou LocomotiveThe first driverless metro in Pakistan.
Qatar QatarDoha MetroRed Line8 May 2019SelTrac
Green Line10 December 2019
Gold Line21 November 2019
Hamad International Airport Shuttle2014DCC Doppelmayr Cable Car
Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia Princess Nora bint Abdul Rahman University Automated People Mover 2012 AnsaldoBreda Driverless Metro / Ansaldo STS DTG [28]
Singapore SingaporeChangi Airport Skytrain1990Kyosan APM[lower-alpha 13]
Light Rail Transit (Singapore)Bukit Panjang LRT line6 November 1999Bombardier CITYFLO 550
Sengkang LRT line18 January 2003Kyosan APM
Punggol LRT line29 January 2005
Mass Rapid Transit (Singapore)North East MRT line20 June 2003Alstom Urbalis 300[lower-alpha 14][lower-alpha 15]
Circle MRT line28 May 2009
Downtown MRT line22 December 2013Siemens Trainguard Sirius CBTC
North South MRT line2017[30] Thales Seltrac® Convergence CBTC[31]
East West MRT line18 June 2017 (Tuas West extension)
28 May 2018 (whole line)[30]
Thomson–East Coast MRT line31 January 2020[32]Alstom Urbalis 400
South Korea South KoreaBusan-Gimhae Light Rail Transit9 September 2011SelTrac
Busan MetroLine 430 March 2011
Daegu MetroLine 323 April 2015
Incheon Airport Maglev3 February 2016
Incheon Airport Shuttle train20 June 2008
Incheon SubwayLine 230 July 2016SelTrac
Seoul Light Rapid TransitU Line1 July 2012VAL system
Everline26 April 2013Bombardier CITYFLO 650
Ui LRT2 September 2017
Gimpo Goldline28 September 2019Nippon Signal SPARCS
Seoul Metropolitan SubwayShinbundang Line28 October 2011SelTrac
Wolmi Sea Train8 October 2019Urbanaut
Taiwan Taiwan Taichung Metro Green Line 25 April 2021 Alstom Urbalis 400
Taipei MetroWenhu Line28 March 1996Bombardier CITYFLO 650[lower-alpha 16][lower-alpha 17]
Circular Line31 January 2020AnsaldoBreda Driverless Metro / Ansaldo STS CBTCCurrently operated with attendant on-board [28]
Taoyuan International Airport Skytrain18 January 2003
Thailand ThailandBTS SkytrainGold Line16 December 2020Bombardier CITYFLO 650
Turkey TurkeyIstanbul MetroLine M515 September 2017Bombardier CITYFLO 650[lower-alpha 18][33]
Line M86 January 2023
United Arab Emirates United Arab EmiratesDubai International Airport Automated People MoverTerminal 1 APM2016
Terminal 3 APMJanuary 2013
Dubai MetroRed Line9 September 2009SelTrac[lower-alpha 19]
Green Line9 September 2011
Palm Jumeirah Monorail30 April 2009

GoA4 – Europe
The Lille Metro is operated using fully automated rubber-tyred VAL vehicles
Country/region Name of system Line Date System Notes
Denmark DenmarkCopenhagen MetroLine M119 October 2002AnsaldoBreda Driverless Metro / Ansaldo STS DTG[28]
Line M2
Line M329 September 2019 AnsaldoBreda Driverless Metro / Ansaldo STS CBTC
Line M428 March 2020
France FranceCDGVALLine 13 April 2007VAL system
Line 227 June 2007
Lille MetroLine A25 April 1983VAL systemFirst line to use the VAL system
Line B1 April 1989
Lyon MetroLine B25 June 2022Alstom Urbalis 400[lower-alpha 20][lower-alpha 21]
Line D11 December 1992
Orlyval2 October 1991VAL system
Paris MetroLine 13 November 2011Siemens Trainguard MT CBTC[lower-alpha 20]
Line 412 September 2022 (first GoA4 shuttle)
2023 (Full conversion)		Older manual GoA2 trains are progressively being replaced by GoA4 fully automated shuttles
Line 1415 October 1998
Rennes MetroLine A15 March 2002VAL system
Line B20 September 2022
Toulouse MetroLine A26 June 1993VAL system
Line B30 June 2007
Germany GermanyDortmund H-Bahn2 May 1984SIPEM
Düsseldorf Airport SkyTrain1 July 2002SIPEM
Munich Airport Satellite Terminal Shuttle Train2016Bombardier CITYFLO 650[34]
Nuremberg U-BahnLine U22 January 2010[lower-alpha 20]
Line U314 June 2008
SkyLine1994VAL system
Hungary HungaryBudapest MetroLine 428 March 2014Siemens Trainguard MT CBTC[35]
Italy ItalyBrescia Metro2 March 2013AnsaldoBreda Driverless Metro / Ansaldo STS DTG[28]
Marconi Express18 November 2020Intamin People Mover P30[36]
Milan MetroLine 42022 (Under construction)AnsaldoBreda Driverless Metro / Ansaldo STS CBTC[28]
Line 510 February 2013 AnsaldoBreda Driverless Metro / Ansaldo STS DTG
Pisa Mover2017MiniMetro
Rome MetroLine C9 November 2014AnsaldoBreda Driverless Metro / Ansaldo STS DTG[28]
SkyBridge1999
Turin MetroLine M14 February 2006VAL system[lower-alpha 22]
Venice People Mover19 April 2010DCC Doppelmayr Cable Car
Russia RussiaAutomated Passenger Transportation SystemJune 2018DCC Doppelmayr Cable Car
Spain SpainBarcelona MetroLine 913 December 2009Siemens Trainguard MT CBTC47.8 km (29.7 mi)
Line 1010 April 2010
Madrid Barajas Airport People MoverDecember 2005Bombardier CITYFLO 550
Switzerland SwitzerlandLausanne MetroLine M227 October 2008Alstom Urbalis 300
SkymetroSeptember 2003Otis Hovair
Turkey TurkeyIstanbul MetroLine M728 October 2020Bombardier CITYFLO 650
United Kingdom United KingdomAirRail Link7 March 2003DCC Doppelmayr Cable Car
Gatwick Airport Shuttle Transit1987Bombardier CITYFLO 650
Heathrow Terminal 5 Transit2008Bombardier CITYFLO 650
Stansted Airport Transit System1991Bombardier CITYFLO 550

GoA4 – Oceania
Sydney Metro Alstom Metropolis
Country/region Name of system Line Date System Notes
Australia AustraliaPilbara railwaysRio Tinto iron ore trains from Roy Hill28 December 2018Hitachi AutoHaul[lower-alpha 23]
Sydney MetroNorth West Line26 May 2019Alstom Urbalis 400[lower-alpha 24]

Notes
  1. With train captains monitoring in cab
  2. With train captains monitoring in cab
  3. UTO system jointly developed by Thales Group and Shanghai Electric.[2]
  4. Previously operated in manual mode
  5. A supervisor is monitoring the train in the cab
  6. To be converted to GoA4
  7. With train captains monitoring in cab.
  8. Rebuilt in 1981
  9. Rebuilt in 2016
  10. This railroad is GoA2 capable, able to run a train without any person on board for the entire trip out to the Four Corners Generating Station and back to the mines.
  11. UTO system jointly developed by Thales Group and Shanghai Electric.[18]
  12. With train attendants to drive trains in the event of a disruption.
  13. Original system opened in 1990; upgraded to current system in 2006.
  14. The largest fully automated rapid transit network in the world with 202.4 km (125.8 mi) of automated rail lines.[29] Trains may have an attendant on board. Only North South line and East West line has driving cabins.
  15. North South and East West lines were converted from a lower GoA to a higher GoA
  16. Previously used VAL
  17. System started with an attendant on board each train full-time. Gradually over time, the presence of attendants decreased. By September 2017, trains have attendants only while in long tunnel sections.
  18. On the Asian side of Istanbul
  19. Red Line at 52.1 km (32.4 mi). The longest driverless network in the Middle East.
  20. Converted from manual to automated operation
  21. Rubber-tyred trains controlled by a system known as MAGGALY (Métro Automatique à Grand Gabarit de l'Agglomération Lyonnaise).
  22. First fully automatic metro in Italy. First section opened for the 2006 Winter Olympics, completed in 2014.
  23. The Rio Tinto Group "AutoHaul" system on its iron ore railways in the Pilbara.[37] This system is GoA 4 capable, able to run trains without a single person aboard for the entire trip out to the mines and back to the port. In October 2017 the first fully autonomous test took place over a 100 kilometres (62 mi) section.[38] The group was granted accreditation by Australia's Office of the National Rail Safety Regulator, approving the autonomous operation of iron ore trains in the Pilbara region of Western Australia.[39]
  24. First completely driverless metro line in Australia.

References
  1. "Thales Awarded Signalling Contract for News Salvador Metro". Thales Group. Retrieved 29 December 2018.
  2. Briginshaw, David. "Shanghai awards contract for first automated metro line". Retrieved 2018-05-21.
  3. "上海5号线TSTCBTC®2.0信号系统成功通过载客运营考核评审 – TST". www.thalessec.com.cn. Retrieved 2021-03-02.
  4. "卡斯柯100%全自主信号护航 上海轨道交通17号线开通载客运营". www.casco.com.cn. Retrieved 2019-09-10.
  5. "武汉地铁进入全自动驾驶时代 5号线有望"尝鲜"" [Wuhan Metro enters the fully driverless era: Line 5 could have "early preview"]. Chutian Metropolis Daily. 16 May 2018. Archived from the original on 13 October 2019. Retrieved 19 February 2019 – via China News Service.
  6. "Sofia metro line 3 to open in October 2019". The Sofia Globe. 2019-02-12. Retrieved 2019-07-04.
  7. "Relatório de Empreendimentos - Julho/2022". Metrô. 2022. Retrieved 20 September 2022.
  8. "ViaQuatro ganha Prêmio UITP Latino" (in Portuguese).
  9. "Evergreen Extension opening today". 2 December 2016.
  10. "Beijing welcome significant expansion of their urban rail network". Intelligent Transport. Retrieved 29 December 2018.
  11. "建设运营 北京地铁大兴机场线下月底开通". 2019-08-30. Archived from the original on 2019-12-17. Retrieved 2022-10-15.
  12. Ltd, DVV Media International. "Chengdu driverless metro contracts awarded". Metro Report. Archived from the original on 2018-07-04. Retrieved 2018-05-21.
  13. 新浪新闻综合 (2021-03-19). "明日暂不通车！济南地铁2号线预计3月下旬开始初期运营". news.sina.com.cn. Retrieved 2021-12-29.
  14. "南宁地铁5号线开通！华南地区首条全自动运行地铁". gx.people.com.cn. Retrieved 2021-12-30.
  15. "宁波轨道交通5号线一期12月28日10点开通运营". www.bl.gov.cn. Retrieved 2021-12-30.
  16. "Urbalis 888国产化列车运行控制系统解决方案". 2019-03-08. Archived from the original on 2019-03-08. Retrieved 2021-06-06.
  17. "上海地铁10号线列车驾驶室接连拆除，发生了什么？". sh.people.com.cn. Retrieved 2021-06-06.
  18. Briginshaw, David. "Shanghai awards contract for first automated metro line". Retrieved 2018-05-21.
  19. "上海地铁14、15、18号线将全部采用无人驾驶" [Shanghai Metro Lines 14, 15 and 18 will all be unmanned]. Kanxsw.com. 10 October 2018. Retrieved 2018-11-03.
  20. "上海轨道交通14、15、18号线将全部实现无人驾驶". 上海国际轨道交通展览会 (in Simplified Chinese). Archived from the original on 2020-10-27. Retrieved 2020-04-21.
  21. "CASCO Wins the Bids for Shenzhen Metro Line 20 Phase I and Nantong Rail Transit Line 2 Phase I". CASCO Signal Ltd. Retrieved 2020-08-23.
  22. "Siemens Mobility to install CBTC system on two Chinese metro lines". Railway Pro. Retrieved 2020-08-23.
  23. 中国新闻网 (2021-12-28). "天津地铁首条全自动运行线路开通 智慧车站示范站亮相津门". finance.sina.com.cn. Retrieved 2021-12-29.
  24. ""武汉造"全自动无人驾驶地铁列车来啦！不设驾驶室，还有这些"高精尖"_首页武汉_新闻中心_长江网_cjn.cn". news.cjn.cn. Retrieved 2021-12-30.
  25. "南港島線無人駕駛列車 職員長駐隨時應急". 東方日報 Oriental Daily. Retrieved 25 December 2016.
  26. Rajput, Abhinav (April 28, 2016). "South Delhi-Noida direct Metro connectivity by August". HT Media Limited. Hindustan Times. Retrieved 10 May 2016.
  27. "Taipa line of the Macau light railway starts operating". Macauhub. 10 December 2019. Retrieved 2019-12-31.
  28. Betis, Alexander; Torre, Marino; Ghiorzo, Alessandro; Del Gaudio, Giovanni (2017-04-06). "LA LINEA M4 DI MILANO: APPROFONDIAMO GLI ASPETTI TECNICI L'evoluzione del sistema di automazione dalla M5 alla M4, evoluzione e non rivoluzione" (PDF). CIFI (in Italian). Collegio Ingegneri Ferroviari Italiani. p. 18. Retrieved 2022-03-13.
  29. Briginshaw, David (July 20, 2016). "Automated metros set to reach 2200km by 2025". International Railway Journal. Retrieved February 9, 2018.
  30. "All MRT lines now on new signalling system". The Straits Times. 2018-05-29. Retrieved 2019-07-06.
  31. TODAY Online (April 13, 2017). "doors open and close automatically under the new system-Gov.sg". gov.sg. Retrieved February 9, 2018.
  32. "First three stations of Thomson-East Coast Line to begin service on Jan 31; free travel for commuters for three days". The Straits Times. 2019-12-11. Retrieved 2019-12-31.
  33. UK, DVV Media. "Erdoğan opens first driverless metro line in Istanbul". Metro Report. Archived from the original on 2018-11-23. Retrieved 2017-12-23.
  34. "Munich Airport streaks ahead of Berlin with driverless trains". www.thelocal.de. 2016-02-22. Retrieved 2019-10-11.
  35. Railway Gazette International May 2014, pg 15.
  36. "Marconi Express 2020 in Operation". Intamin Transportation. 2021-02-08. Retrieved 2022-03-13.
  37. "Rio Tinto has confirmed that it is on track to completely transition to driverless trains across its entire Pilbara operation by the end of 2018". iseekplant.com.au. July 20, 2017. Retrieved 1 September 2017.
  38. "Rio Tinto operates first fully-autonomous test train". Railway Gazette. October 2, 2017. Retrieved 5 October 2017.
  39. Ltd, DVV Media International. "Rio Tinto's automated trains approved". Railway Gazette. Retrieved 2018-05-23.
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