Afroasiatic homeland

The Afroasiatic Urheimat is the hypothetical place where speakers of the proto-Afroasiatic language lived in a single linguistic community, or complex of communities, before this original language dispersed geographically and divided into separate distinct languages. This speech area is known as the Urheimat ("original homeland" in German). Afroasiatic languages are today mostly distributed in parts of Africa, and Western Asia.

The Afroasiatic languages, as they are distributed today
Afroasiatic languages ca. 500 BC, Omotic and Chadic branches not shown[1]

The contemporary Afroasiatic languages are spoken in West Asia, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, parts of the Sahara and Sahel, and Malta. The various hypotheses for the Afroasiatic Urheimat are distributed throughout this territory;[2][3][4][5] that is, it is generally assumed that proto-Afroasiatic was spoken in some region where Afroasiatic languages are still spoken today. However, there is argument as to which part of the contemporary Afroasiatic speech area corresponds with the original homeland. The majority of scholars today contend that Afroasiatic languages arose somewhere in Northeast Africa.[6]

Date of Afroasiatic

The earliest written evidence of an Afroasiatic language is an Ancient Egyptian inscription dated c. 3400 BC (5,400 years ago).[7] Symbols on Gerzean pottery resembling Egyptian hieroglyphs date back to c. 4000 BC, suggesting a still earlier possible date. This gives us a minimum date for the age of Afroasiatic. However, Ancient Egyptian is highly divergent from proto-Afroasiatic (Trombetti 1905: 1–2), and considerable time must have elapsed in between them. Estimates of the date at which the proto-Afroasiatic language was spoken vary widely. They fall within a range between approximately 7500 BC (9,500 years ago) and approximately 16,000 BC (18,000 years ago). According to Igor M. Diakonoff (1988: 33n), proto-Afroasiatic was spoken c. 10,000 BC. According to Christopher Ehret (2002: 35–36), proto-Afroasiatic was spoken c. 11,000 BC at the latest, and possibly as early as c. 16,000 BC. These dates are older than dates associated with most other protolanguages.

Urheimat hypotheses

Levant agriculturalists

Supporters of a non-African origin for Afroasiatic are particularly common among those with a background in Semitic or Egyptological studies, amongst archaeological proponents of the "farming/language dispersal hypothesis" according to which major language groups dispersed with early farming technology in the Neolithic.[8][9] The leading linguistic proponent of this idea in recent times is Alexander Militarev. Arguments for and against this position depend upon the contested proposal that farming-related words can be reconstructed in Proto-Afroasiatic, with farming technology being widely thought to have spread from the Levant into North Africa.

Militarev, who linked proto-Afroasiatic to the Levantine Natufian culture, that preceded the spread of farming technology, believes the language family to be about 10,000 years old. He wrote (Militarev 2002, p. 135) that the "Proto-Afrasian language, on the verge of a split into daughter languages", meaning, in his scenario, into "Cushitic, Omotic, Egyptian, Semitic and Chadic-Berber", "should be roughly dated to the ninth millennium BC". But an Asiatic origin need not be associated exclusively with the migration of agricultural populations: according to linguists, words for dog (an Asian domesticate) reconstruct to Proto-Afroasiatic[10] as well as words for bow and arrow,[11] which according to some archaeologists spread rapidly across North Africa once they were introduced to North Africa from the Near East, viz. Ounan points.[12] The farming/language dispersal hypothesis does not account for the domestication of plants endemic to the Horn of Africa such as teff, ensete, and niger seed, nor does it account for the lack of evidence for intrusive agricultural populations or the cultivation of wheat, barley, or sorghum there prior to 3000 BCE[13]

West Asian pastoralists

Militarev (2009) presented an adjusted version for a West Asian homeland of proto-Afroasiatic, based on new findings and analyzed lexicon linked to a pastoralist society (cattle-breeding). He argues that proto-Afroasiatic originated among West Asian pastoralists and migrated into Africa during pre-agricultural times, subsequently coming into contact with local non-Afroasiatic groups in Africa.[14]

Northeast Africa theory

Northeast Africa has been proposed by the majority of linguists as the origin of the language group because it includes the majority of the diversity of the Afroasiatic language family and has very diverse groups in close geographic proximity, sometimes considered a telltale sign for a linguistic geographic origin.[6][15] Within this hypothesis there are competing variants.

Red Sea coast

Christopher Ehret has proposed the western Red Sea coast from Eritrea to southeastern Egypt. While Ehret disputes Militarev's proposal that Proto-Afroasiatic shows signs of a common farming lexicon, he suggests that early Afroasiatic languages were involved in the even earlier development of intensive food collection in the areas of Ethiopia and Sudan. In other words, he proposes an even older age for Afroasiatic than Militarev, at least 15,000 years old and possibly older, and believes farming lexicon can only be reconstructed for branches of Afroasiatic. Ehret argues that Proto-Afroasiatic speakers in Northeast Africa developed subsistence patterns of intensive plant collection and pastoralism, giving the population an economic advantage which impelled the expansion of the Afroasiatic languages. He suggests that a Proto-Semitic or Proto-Semito-Berber-speaking population migrated from Northeast Africa to the Levant during the late Paleolithic and eventually gave rise to the Natufian culture and Semitic languages.[16][17][18][19] It is argued, the appearance of linguistic terms such as dog, bow, and arrow[20] in Proto-Afroasiatic makes a date earlier than 9500 BC (coinciding with the end of the Younger Dryas) highly unlikely since dogs only appear at the earliest in the archaeological record after 12,000 BC in the Near East,[21] and arrowheads only appear after 9500 BC in North Africa and the Horn of Africa as a result of introduction from the Near East.[12] However, microlithic arrowheads appear in southern Africa (71,000 BP) and possibly the Aterian culture of North Africa (ca. 100,000–25,000 BP) suggesting that arrowheads may have been an invention originating in Africa and taken into the Near East by a pre-Afroasiatic late glacial migration. At the site of Nataruk in Turkana County, Kenya, obsidian bladelets found embedded in a skull and within the thoracic cavity of another skeleton dated to ca. 10,000 BP, may suggest the use of stone-tipped arrows as weapons.[22] After the end of the last glacial period, use of the bow seems to have spread to every inhabited continent, including the New World, except for Australia.[23]

In the next phase, unlike many other authors Ehret proposed an initial split between northern, southern and Omotic. The northern group includes Semitic, Egyptian and Berber (agreeing with others such as Diakonoff). He proposed that Chadic stems from Berber (some other authors group it with southern Afroasiatic languages such as Cushitic ones).

Ethiopia

Roger Blench has proposed southwestern Ethiopia, in or around the Omo Valley, citing the high internal diversification of the Omotic branch and the lack of evidence that Omotic-speaking groups migrated to this region from elsewhere. Compared to Militarev and Ehret he proposed a relatively young time-depth of approximately 10,000 years. Like Ehret he accepts that Omotic is Afroasiatic and sees the split of northern languages from Omotic as an important early development.[2]

Sahel/Sahara

Igor Diakonoff proposed the Eastern Sahara region, specifically the southern fringe of the Sahara.[4][24]

Lionel Bender proposed the area near Khartoum, Sudan, at the confluence of the Blue Nile and White Nile.[4][24] The details of his theory are widely cited but controversial, as it involves the proposal that Semitic originated in Ethiopia and crossed to Asia directly from there over the Red Sea. This could also potentially solidify Bender's argument, in that scholars today believe that there is a relationship between the Cushitic branch and the Chadic Branch; arguing that perhaps Chadic descends from Cushitic.

Across the Sinai

Pagani and Crevecoeur (2019), based on the debate of the place of origin for proto-Afroasiatic, proposed an intermediate "across-the-Sinai" solution. They argue that "Given the dually "deeply-rooted" presence of Afro-Asiatic languages both in Africa and in the Levant, the linguistic debate on the origin of this family is still open (Kitchen et al. 2009;Ehret et al. 2004) and probably settling on an intermediate "across-the-Sinai" solution. This shows that even relatively well studied cultural packages such as languages point to early interactions between Africa and the neighbouring Eurasian cultures or, in other words, to a geographical shrinking of what can currently be defined as "strictly African" in a long term perspective."[25]

A similar view was already proposed by Scheinfeldt et al., which associate proto-Afroasiatic speakers with the Kebaran and the Mushabian culture, but see the roots of proto-Afroasiatic in Northern Africa.[26]

Evidence from population genetics
Further information: Genetic history of the Middle East and Genetic history of North Africa
For a basic introduction to population genetics, see Population genetics.
Frequency of haplogroup E1b1b in select Afro-Asiatic speakers [27][28][29][30][31][32][33]
Language (Region where historically spoken)Frequency
Berber languages16–100%
Chadic languages 0–13%
Cushitic languages25–100%
Omotic languages30–80%
Semitic languages7–93%

The most commonly cited genetic marker in recent decades has been the Y chromosome, which is passed from father to son along paternal lines in un-mixed form, and therefore gives a relatively clear definition of one human line of descent from common ancestors. There is a high frequency of haplogroups J1 and E1b1b in select Afro-Asiatic speakers.[27][28][29][30]

Several branches of humanity's Y-DNA family tree have been proposed as having an association with the spread of Afroasiatic languages.

1. Haplogroup E1b1b is thought to have originated in Northeast Africa and to have migrated out of Africa in the Mesolithic.[34][35][36] In general, Afroasiatic speaking populations have relatively high frequencies of this haplogroup, with the notable exception of Chadic speaking populations. Christopher Ehret and Shomarka Keita have suggested that the geography of the E1b1b lineage coincides with the distribution of Afroasiatic languages.[37]

2. Haplogroup J1c3 (Y-DNA), previously known as "J1e", is actually a more common paternal lineage than E1b1b in most Semitic speaking populations, but this is associated with Middle Eastern origins and has apparently been spread from there after the original dispersion of Afroasiatic.[38]

Frequency of Sub-Haplogroup J1c3 in select Afro-Asiatic speakers[39][40][41][32]
Language (Region where historically spoken) Frequency
Berber languages 0–6%
Chadic languages ?
Cushitic languages 5–38%
Omotic languages 0–5% 40
Semitic languages 4–75%
Frequency of Sub-Haplogroup R1b1a in select Afro-Asiatic speakers[32][42]
Language (Region where historically spoken) Frequency
Berber languages0–6%
Chadic languages28–95%
Cushitic languages 0%
Omotic languages 0%
Semitic languages0–93%

3. Haplogroup R1b1a (R-V88), and specifically its sub-clade R-V69, has a very strong relationship with Chadic speaking populations, who unlike other Afroasiatic speakers have low frequencies of Haplogroup E1b1b and J1.[42] The majority of R-V88 was found in northern and central Africa, in Chadic-speaking populations. It is less common in neighbouring populations. The authors also found evidence of high concentration in Western Egypt and evidence that the closest related types of R1b are found in the Middle East, Levant, and to a lesser extent southern Europe. They proposed that an Eastern Saharan origin for Chadic R1b would agree with linguistic theories such as those of Christopher Ehret, that Chadic and Berber form a related group within Afroasiatic, which originated in the area of the Sahara.[42] R1b-V88 had probably entered Africa from Western Asia, via Egypt, and moved south along the Nile river and eventually crossing over to West Africa between 9,200 and 5,600 years ago.[43]

In contrast to the evidence from paternally inherited Y-DNA, a recent study has shown that a branch of mitochondrial haplogroup L3 links the maternal ancestry of Chadic-speakers from the Sahel with Cushitic-speakers from the Horn of Africa.[44]

Other mitochondrial lineages that are associated with Afroasiatic include mitochondrial haplogroups M1 and haplogroup U6. Gonzalez et al. 2007 suggest that Afroasiatic speakers may have dispersed from the Horn of Africa carrying the subclades M1a and U6a1.[45]

Proposed migration and expansion routes of the Afroasiatic languages according to the Northeast African model.
Proposed migration routes of paternal lineage E, which likely arose in Northeast Africa and is common among Afroasiatic-speakers.

According to an autosomal DNA study by Hodgson et al. (2014), the Afroasiatic languages were likely spread across Africa and the Near East by an ancestral population(s) carrying a newly identified non-African genetic component, which the researchers dub the "Ethio-Somali". This genetic component is prevalent among modern Afroasiatic-speaking populations, found at its highest levels among those in the Horn of Africa. It is most closely related to the Maghrebi non-African genetic component and is believed to have diverged from all other non-African ancestries at least 23,000 years ago. On this basis, the researchers suggest that the original Ethio-Somali carrying population(s) probably arrived in the pre-agricultural period (12–23 ka) from the Near East, having crossed over into northeast Africa via the Sinai Peninsula and then split into two, with one branch continuing west across North Africa and the other heading south into the HOA. They suggest that a descendant population migrated back to the Levant prior to 4000 BC and developed the Semitic branch of Afroasiatic. Later migration from Arabia into the HOA beginning around 3 ka would explain the origin of the Ethiosemitic languages at this time.[46] A related hypothesis suggesting the ancestors of Afroasiatic speakers could have been a population originating in the Near East that migrated to Northeast Africa during the Late Palaeolithic with a subset later moving back to the Near East was put forward by Daniel McCall in 1998.[47]

Nostratic hypothesis

The Nostratic language family is a proposed macrofamily grouping together a number of language families including Indo-European, Uralic, Altaic, and even more controversially Afroasiatic. Following Pedersen, Illich-Svitych, and Dolgopolsky, most advocates of the theory have included Afroasiatic in Nostratic, though criticisms by Joseph Greenberg and others from the late 1980s onward suggested a reassessment of this position.

Ilya Yabonovich and other linguists, in examining the differences between the various members of the Afroasiatic family, have realised that all of the old etymologies for this group were inherently semitocentric. The differences between Chadic, Omotic, Cushitic and Semitic, were wider than those seen between any members of the Indo-European family and as wide as some of the differences seen within and between separate language families, for example, Indo-European and Altaic. Certainly the exclusion of Afroasiatic from the controversial Nostratic family has simplified matters of phonemics, not having to include the complex patterns seen in Afroasiatic languages.

Allan Bomhard (1994) retains Afroasiatic within Nostratic, despite his admission that Proto–Afroasiatic is very different from the other members of the proposed linguistic Nostratic superfamily.[48] As a result, he suggests it was probably the first language to have split from the Nostratic linguistic superfamily. Recently, however, a consensus has been emerging among proponents of the Nostratic hypothesis. Greenberg in fact basically agreed with the Nostratic concept, though he stressed a deep internal division between its northern 'tier' (his Eurasiatic) and a southern 'tier' (principally Afroasiatic and Dravidian). The American Nostraticist Bomhard considers Eurasiatic a branch of Nostratic alongside other branches: Afroasiatic, Elamo-Dravidian, and Kartvelian. Similarly, Georgiy Starostin (2002) arrives at a tripartite overall grouping: he considers Afroasiatic, Nostratic and Elamite to be roughly equidistant and more closely related to each other than to anything else.[49] Sergei Starostin's school has now re-included Afroasiatic in a broadly defined Nostratic, while reserving the term Eurasiatic to designate the narrower subgrouping which comprises the rest of the macrofamily. Recent proposals, thus, differ mainly on the precise placement of Dravidian and Kartvelian.

See also

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Further reading
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