Regnal lists of Ethiopia

Menelik I

Ethiopian traditions record a range of different monarchs from earlier times whose existence has not been verified by modern-day archeology. Their stories and legends may have elements of truth but it is unclear to what extent this is the case. Numerous king lists have been recorded either on manuscripts or via oral tradition. However, surviving information on the kings prior to the reign of emperor Yekuno Amlak (1270–1285) is often scattered, incomplete or contradictory.[1][2] The king lists that do refer to pre-1270 Ethiopia rarely match completely with one another.[3] This variation is likely because the lists were compiled over a long time period across several different monasteries.[4]

Notable legendary Ethiopian monarchs include:

• Arwe – Mythical serpent king who ruled for 400 years before being killed by Angabo, sometimes known as the father of the Queen of Sheba.
• Ethiopis – A king who was said to have inspired the name of the country of Ethiopia.
• Makeda – The biblical queen of Sheba who, according to Ethiopian tradition, is believed to be the mother of Menelik I.
• Menelik I – Son of the queen of Sheba and king Solomon of Israel and founder of the Solomonic dynasty in the 10th century BC. Much information on this king comes from the 14th century text Kebra Nagast, however he remains historically unverified. In reality, the Solomonic dynasty began in 1270 AD with the reign of Yekuno Amlak.
• Abreha and Atsbeha – Two brothers who supposedly brought Christianity to Ethiopia, however their existence is doubted by some historians. Some scholars believe that the story of Abreha and Atsbeha may in fact be based on the Axumite kings Ezana and Saizana.[5]
• Gudit – Legendary queen who supposedly laid waste to the Kingdom of Axum. Her deeds are recorded in oral tradition, but the various stories about her occasionally have differing or conflicting details.

This regnal list chronicles kings who ruled before Menelik I, but relies on Biblical chronology, particularly from the Book of Genesis.

The following list was included in E. A. Wallis Budge's book A History of Ethiopia (Volume I) and was quoted from two manuscripts; One held in the British Museum and another held in the Bibliothèque nationale de France, which was published in René Basset's 1882 book Études sur l'histoire d'Éthiopie.[6] The names of these kings also appear in the 14th-century text Kebra Nagast.[7] Budge belived this list had "no historical value" and was only intended to fill the gap from Adam to Solomon.[6]

The last king, 'Ebna Hakim, does not appear in the Bible and is meant to be Menelik I, the son of Solomon and the Queen of Sheba.[8] The name Ebna Hakim translates to "Son of the Wise Man" (i.e. Solomon) in Arabic.[8]

The Kebra Nagast lists an additional king named 'Orni between Hezron and Aram, who was the son of Hezron and father of Aram.[9] Budge believed this king to be Oren, son of Jerahmeel.[9]

Another Ethiopian tradition claims that the Ethiopian monarchy descended from Ham, son of the Biblical prophet Noah. While Ham is not included in the Biblical regnal list mentioned above, a claimed genealogy from Ham to the founders of Axum does exist.[10] According to this tradition, Axum was founded within a century after the Great Flood.[11] This genealogy chronicles kings descending from Ham who represent Ethiopia and Axum. E. A. Wallis Budge called this dynasty the "Dynasty of Kush".[12]

Enno Littmann recorded a tradition from an Ethiopian priest named Gabra Wahad, who stated the following:

"Ham begot Kush, Kush begot Aethiopis, after whom the country is called Aethiopia to this day. Aethiopis was buried in Aksum, and his grave is known there to this day. It was said that a fire used to burn in it, and that if any donkey's excrement, or any bit of stuff fell into it, it was consumed. Aethiopis begot 'Aksumawi, 'Aksumawi begot Malayka 'Aksum, and begot also Sum, Nafas, Bagi'o, Kuduki, 'Akhoro, Fasheba. These six sons of 'Aksumawi became the fathers of Aksum. When they wished to divide their land, there came a man called May Bih, and as people say divided their land as an agent. Each of the six gave him two acres of land and he settled down with them."[13]

The mythical serpent Arwe is sometimes considered to be part of his own dynasty. Traditions quoted by Egyptologists Henry Salt and E. A. Wallis Budge differ on whether Arwe himself reigned for 400 years or whether this figure refers to the dynasty as a whole.

French historian Louis J. Morié noted a different interpretation on this dynasty. He claimed that there were three kings named Arwe or "Aroue" between 1776 B.C. and 1400 B.C., and the first king was a Hyksos chief who took the title of king of Axum in 1776 B.C.[15] He also claimed that Arwe III was the brother of Angabo, who would defeat and kill him.[16] This interpretation is, however, largely imaginative and not based on native Ethiopian tradition.

After killing Arwe, Angabo became the new king of Ethiopia. Some traditions relate that he reigned for 200 years and was followed by three further kings before queen Makeda ascended the throne.[18]

E. A. Wallis Budge called this dynasty a "Native African dynasty" to differentiate it from the "Kush dynasty".[8]

All rulers of this dynasty were included on the 1922 regnal list as part of the "Agdazyan" or "Ag'azyan" dynasty. In most cases their reign lengths were shortened to be more realistic.

Beginning with Menelik I, Ethiopian regnal lists begin to diverge on the exact order of succession. Only a few rulers' names are consistently recorded across all lists. This section looks at rulers who are named as reigning between Menelik I and Bazen, who began his reign eight years before the birth of Jesus. Despite tradition claiming that Menelik ruled in the 10th century BC, the reign lengths provided on some lists do not allow for this.

European travellers James Bruce and Henry Salt published king lists in their books Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile (1790) and A Voyage to Abyssinia (1814).[19][20] Bruce acquired an Ethiopian manuscript which later became part of the Bodleian Library in Oxford.[19] He had gathered information for his regnal list from local scribes, though did not believe they were trustworthy or that his regnal list was complete.[19] Italian orientalist Carlo Conti Rossini edited a book titled History of the Kings of Dabra Yahanes, published in 1903, which contained another king list.[21]

E. A. Wallis Budge compared the content of Bruce's, Salt's and Rossini's lists with that of two manuscripts held in the British Museum.[22] The 1922 regnal list brings together previous king lists and attempts to include the majority of monarchs in a longer line of succession. The tables below list kings whose names match those found on the other lists and the numbered position they have on the 1922 list.

Budge theorised that the existence of multiple king lists suggest that these represent rival claimants to the throne.[23] Budge regarded a line of kings as represented by the British Museum manuscript Oriental No. 831, fol. 36a to be the most authoritative.[23]

Lists recorded by Bruce and Rossini, as well as the 1922 regnal list, are all in agreement that Christ was born in the eighth year of Bazen's reign, a statement that is also clear on one of the British Museum manuscripts.[24] If one was to calculate backwards from the Bazen's reign, then Salt's list would date Menelik I to 128–99 B.C., over 9 centuries after the traditional 10th century BC dating of Menelik's reign. If the same was done for Bruce's list, then Menelik's reign would be pushed back nearly a century earlier but would still fall far short of the 10th century BC dating. The 1922 regnal list attempts to correct this by combining various monarchs into a longer list that allows Menelik to be firmly dated to the 10th century BC.

Salt noted the existence of a "corrupt" king list.[20] The only obvious inaccuracy of the "corrupt" king list is the combining of kings Tomai and Zagdur into one king. Otherwise, the list shows noticeable similarities with the one quoted by Rossini and one of the British Museum manuscripts.

The following tables chronicle monarchs who ruled from Bazen to Abreha and Atsbeha, brothers who are credited in Ethiopian tradition with being the first rulers to convert to Christianity. Tradition recorded that Bazen's reign began in 8 BC and Ethiopia converted to Christianity in 327 AD. However, the reign lengths on some king lists push Abeha and Atsbeha's reign much further than 327.

This table shows a comparison between regnal lists recorded by James Bruce and Carlo Conti Rossini with a written list from a manuscript, as well as the 1922 regnal list of Ethiopia.

By contrast, the lists recorded by Henry Salt and on the British Museum manuscript Oriental No. 821, fol. 28b have a noticeably different line of kings running up to Abreha and Atsbeha.

Salt noted that the king list he quoted dated exactly 330 years between the birth of Christ and the thirteenth year of Abreha's reign, when Christianity was introduced.[20] This is the same period of time which is quoted in other Ethiopian chronicles.[20] Because of this, Salt deliberately altered the placement of Abreha and Atsbeha so that the thirteenth year of their joint reign would fall correctly on the date when Christianity was introduced to Ethiopia instead of contradicting this tradition.

Henry Salt theorised that the change of prefix from "Za" to "El" after the reign of Za Elasguaga reflected a change of dynasty.[20] He believed that this theory could be confirmed by the short reigns of Za Baesi Tsawesa, Za Wakena and Za Hadus, who all reigned for a combined total of 1 year, 4 months and 2 days after the first "El" king, El Herka.[20] He believed that the "Za" kings were the "shepherd kings" or "original Ethiopians" before being replaced by a new "race" of kings.[20] Salt suggested that this change may have been caused by colony of Syrians who were placed by Alexander the Great near the mouth of the Red Sea according to an account written by Philostorgius.[20]

Louis J. Morié believed that some kings who ruled between Bazena and Abreha and Atsbeha were duplicated on king lists under different names.[31] He proposed that following pairs of kings were in fact the same person:

• "Senatu"/"Sartu" and "Les"/"L'as", who he calls "Za-Sendo" and "Za-Laeka".[31]
• "Adgaba"/"Adgasa" and "Agba"/"Agabos", who he calls "Adgaba"/"Bahr-Sor" and "Agbea".[31]
• "Awtet" and "Aweda".[31]
• "Sargai"/"Sharguay" and "Zaray".[31]

The following lists chronicle the kings who reigned from Abreha and Atsbeha in the 4th century to Dil Na'od, who was the last ruler of the Axumite kingdom, which fell in c. 960.

Mural in Qusayr 'Amra depicting an Axumite king from the first half of the eighth century.

Henry Salt noted that one chronicle explicitly stated that 330 years had passed between the birth of Christ and the thirteenth year of Abreha's reign, however the same chronicle makes a "very striking error" by placing Abreha after El Ahiawya and thus suggesting that his thirteenth reign took place 465 years after the birth of Christ.[37] As a result, Salt's personal king list alters the order slightly by placing Abreha and Atsbeha much further up the king list.[37] Salt believed that the five rulers of his list from El Ahiawya to Seladoba "should [probably] be also removed" altogether, which may explain why Budge did not name them when quoting Salt's king list.[37][38] Salt additionally believed that there should only be one king named Ameda, though his list names two kings of this name.[37]

The four kings Asfah, Arfad, Amosi and Seladoba reigned for a total of 32 years according to Salt's list,[37] though he personally felt that it was more likely they reigned for a total of 70 years.[39] Salt noted that the kings from Ameda to Dil Na'od did not have reign lengths assigned to them in the chronicles but may have reigned for a total of 354 years.[40]

As above, Louis J. Morié theorized that some kings are in fact duplicates of each other. He listed the following names as possibly referring to the same person due to having the same or similar reign lengths:[41]

• "Adhana I" and the joint reign of "Abreha I", "Atsbeha I" and "Shahel I".
• "Rete'a" and "Asfeh II".
• "Abreha II" and "Shahel II".
• "Shahel IV" and "Sebah".

Morié further noted the striking similarities of the names a number of Axumite kings who reigned next to each other, along with names of later kings:[42]

• "Asguagum" and "Asgwagwe".
• "Angabo" and "Agabe".
• "Latem", "Talatem" and "Tatadim".
• "Del Naad" and "Degna Mikael".

E. A. Wallis Budge mentioned a chronicle with a different list of rulers. He believed these monarchs were "kinglets" who ruled parts of Ethiopia separate from other lines of kings between 360 and 480.[43] However, he does not mention the source of this list of kings.[43]

Ethiopian traditions are in agreement that the Zagwe dynasty ruled at some point after the fall of Axum and directly preceded the Solomonic dynasty, but differ regarding when this dynasty first came to power, how long it remained in power and even the number of kings who ruled. The 1922 regnal list of Ethiopia acknowledges eleven kings who ruled for 333 years in total, beginning in the early 10th century:

1. Mara Takla Haymanot (920–933) (13 years)
2. Tatadim (933–973) (40 years)
3. Jan Seyum (973–1013) (40 years)
4. Germa Seyum (1013–1053) (40 years)
5. Yemrehana Krestos (1053–1093) (40 years)
6. Kedus Harbe (1093–1133) (40 years)
7. Lalibela (1133–1173) (40 years)
8. Na'akueto La'ab (1173–1213) (40 years)
9. Yetbarak (1213–1230) (17 years)
10. Mairari (1230–1245) (15 years)
11. Harbai (1245–1253) (8 years)

However, the fact that this list includes seven consecutive kings ruling for exactly 40 years each casts doubt on its historical accuracy. By comparison, a book seen by Pedro Páez and Manuel de Almeida claimed only 5 kings ruled for 143 years, while the Paris Chronicle states eleven kings reigned for 354 years.[53] A manuscript held in Paris (no. 64) claimed 5 kings whose rule began in either 1145 or 1147 and ended in either 1268 or 1270.[54]

A text from Dabra Libanos, quoted by Carlo Conti Rossini, claimed the following list of Zagwe kings:[55]

1. Takla Haymanot reigned 40 years.
2. Jan Seyum reigned 40 years.
3. Germa Seyum reigned 40 years.
4. Gempawedamo reigned 40 years.
5. Yemreha reigned 40 years.
6. Gabra Maryam reigned 40 years.
7. Lalibala reigned 40 years.
8. Na'akueto La'ab reigned 40 years.
9. Yetbarak reigned 9 years.

This list omits Tatadim, Kedus Harbe, Mairari and Harbai, who appear on other king lists. The text that contains this list claims that Gempawedamo was the third son of Mara Takla Haymanot.[55]

Rossini also quoted another list that was published in 1902:[56]

1. Pantaw
2. Pantadem (Tatadim)
3. Djan Seyum
4. Djan Germe (Germa Seyum)
5. 'Arbe (Kedus Harbe)
6. Lalibala
7. Na'akueto La'ab
8. Yemrehana Krestos
9. Yetbarak

This list moves Yemrehana Krestos further down the order of kings compared to most other Zagwe king lists. It is unclear who "Pantaw" is and whether he can be identified with the traditional Zagwe founder, Mara Takla Haymanot, or not. This list also omits the ephemeral emperors Mairari and Harbai.

A manuscript held in the British Museum (Or. 821, fol. 28b), holds a different list of kings which closer match the 1922 regnal list, though with a noticeably short reign for Mara Takla Haymanot.[57]

1. Takla Haymanot – 3 years
2. Tatadem – 40 years
3. Jan Sheyum – 40 years
4. Germa Sheyum – 40 years
5. Yemrehna Krestos – 40 years
6. Kedus Harbe – 40 years
7. Lalibala – 40 years
8. Na'akueto La'ab – 48 years
9. Yetbarak – 40 years
10. Mayrari – 15 years
11. Harbay – 8 years

In his book, Regents of Nations, Peter Truhart included a longer list of Zagwe kings, which featured many kings that do not appear on the most commonly known lists.

The longest regnal list of Ethiopian rulers was written in 1922 and contained 321 names from 4530 BC to 1779 AD. This list combines names from the majority of other regnal lists along with many additional names of rulers of ancient Nubia (which was often called Aethiopia historically) and ancient Egypt, as well as names that originate from the Biblical, ancient Greek, Coptic and Arabic literature. This regnal list first received attention in the Western world when it was published in Charles Fernand Rey's 1927 book In the Country of the Blue Nile after he had been given a copy by the Prince regent Tafari Makannon.[59]

• 1922 regnal list of Ethiopia
• List of kings of Axum
• List of emperors of Ethiopia
• List of royal consorts of Ethiopia
• Index of Ethiopia-related articles

• Budge, E. A. (1928). A History of Ethiopia: Nubia and Abyssinia (Volume I). London: Methuen & Co.
• Budge, E. A. (1928). A History of Ethiopia: Nubia and Abyssinia (Volume II). London: Methuen & Co.
• Budge, E. A. (1922). Kebra Nagast: The Queen of Sheba and Her Only Son Menyelek.
• Huntingford, G.W.B. (1965). "The Wealth of Kings and the End of the Zāguē Dynasty". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 28 (1): 1–23. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00056731. JSTOR 611706. S2CID 161195803.
• Kropp, Manfred (2006). "Ein später Schüler des Julius Africanus zu Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts in Äthiopien". In Wallraf, Martin (ed.). Julius Africanus und die christliche Weltchronistik (in German). Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-019105-9.
• Salt, Henry (1814). A Voyage to Abyssinia. London: W. Bulmer and Co.
• Truhart, Peter (1984). Regents of Nations (Part 1). Munich: K. G. Saur. ISBN 3-598-10492-8.