Suteans

The Suteans (Akkadian: Sutī’ū, possibly from Amorite: Šetī’u[1]) were a Semitic people[2] who lived throughout the Levant, Canaan and Mesopotamia, specifically in the region of Suhum, during the Old Babylonian period. Unlike Amorites, they were not governed by a king.[3] They were famous in Semitic epic poetry for being fierce nomadic warriors, and like the Habiru, traditionally worked as mercenaries, and were sometimes called Ahlamu.[4][5] Hypotheses regarding their identity variously identify them as Arameans, early Arabs or a unique Semitic people.[6]

Map of Mesopotamia during the kingdom of Shamshi-Adad I showing the location of Suhum, the homeland of Suteans

During the reign of Zimri-Lim (c. 1775–1761), they inhabited the vicinity of Terqa.[7] They are mentioned in eight of the 382 Amarna letters. They are listed in documents from the Middle Assyrian Empire (1395-1075 BC) as being extant in the Amorite city of Emar, in what is now northeast Syria. Together with other Semitic peoples; the Chaldeans and Arameans, they overran swaths of Babylonia c. 1100 BC. They were eventually conquered by Assyria, along with the rest of Babylonia.[8][9]

History

Bronze Age

One of the earliest known references to Suteans comes from a report of a Sutean attack on Qatna and Tadmor at the time of Shamshi-Adad I's reign (c. 1808–1776 BC). In another instance, Shamshi-Adad warns his son, Yasmah-Addu, that 1,000 Suteans were headed to raid Yabliya.

During the reign of Zimri-Lim (c. 1775–1761), Suteans appear to be involved in a slave-sale with a Mariote governor and their leader, Hammi-Talu, also rendered some services to Mari. They also appear to have paid a sheep tax to Mari for their use of pastureland as sheep herders themselves. Nevertheless, they also frequently attacked Mari's domains, to what they saw as unjust Mariote hegemony over their territories in Suhum.

At the time of Hammurabi, the Suteans attacked in the vicinity of Larsa after the conquest of the city by the former, but he later utilized their service as couriers.[10]

Amarna letters

Around 1350 BC, the Suteans are mentioned in the Amarna letters. One letter mentioning the Suteans is entitled "Waiting for the Pharaoh's words", from Biryawaza of Dimasqu-(Damascus) to pharaoh:

I am indeed, together with my troops and chariots, together with my brothers, my 'Apiru and my Suteans, at the disposition of the archers, wheresoever the king, my lord, shall order (me to go).[11]

This usage is somewhat atypical of the usage of Habiru and external mercenary forces in the Amarna letters, since this letter quotes them as being necessary and beneficial to the efforts of Biryawaza.

Iron Age

During the Iron Age, some Suteans settled in Chaldea along with the migrating Chaldean, Aramean and Arab tribes.

Language

The Sutean language has not been attested in any written texts, but appears to have been Semitic. This is known through individual names and tribal onomastics, most of which appear to be Akkadian and Amorite, while a small percentage appear to be neither but belonging to a Semitic language.[12] Such onomastics include the name of a tribe, "Almutu", and the Sutean warrior featured in 13th century BC Ugaritic texts, "Yatpan". Wolfgang Heimpel hypothesizes Suteans may have spoken a language close to the later Aramaic or even Arabic.[13]

According to Diakonoff Suteans and the biblical name Seth (Hebrew: שֵׁת‎‎, Modern: Šēt, Tiberian: Šēṯ "placed, appointed") derive from the same root.[14]

See also

References
  1. Diakonoff, I.M. “Father Adam.” In: Hans Hirsch and Hermann Hunger (eds.). Vorträge gehalten auf der 28. Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale in Wien, 6.-10. Juli 1981. Archiv für Orientforschung, Beiheft 19. Horn: Berger 1982, 19 of 16-24.
  2. "Letters to the King of Mari: A New Translation, with Historical Introduction, Notes, and Commentary" p.26. Quote: "A closer look at Sutean names shows a small percentage of non-Akkadian and non-Amorite names that nevertheless belong to a Semitic language, presumably Sutean."
  3. Heimpel, Wolfgang (2003). Letters to the King of Mari: A New Translation, with Historical Introduction, Notes, and Commentary. Eisenbrauns. ISBN 9781575060804.
  4. Margalit, Baruch (2011-11-21). The Ugaritic Poem of AQHT: Text, Translation, Commentary. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-086348-2.
  5. Smith, Mark S. (2014-09-15). Poetic Heroes: The Literary Commemorations of Warriors and Warrior Culture in the Early Biblical World. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8028-6792-6.
  6. Heimpel, Wolfgang (2003). Letters to the King of Mari: A New Translation, with Historical Introduction, Notes, and Commentary. Eisenbrauns. ISBN 9781575060804.
  7. Heimpel, Wolfgang (2003). Letters to the King of Mari: A New Translation, with Historical Introduction, Notes, and Commentary. Eisenbrauns. ISBN 9781575060804.
  8. Snell, Daniel C. (15 April 2008). A Companion to the Ancient Near East - Google Książki. ISBN 9781405137393.
  9. George Roux (27 August 1992). Ancient Iraq. ISBN 978-0140125238.
  10. Heimpel, Wolfgang (2003). Letters to the King of Mari: A New Translation, with Historical Introduction, Notes, and Commentary. Eisenbrauns. ISBN 9781575060804.
  11. EA 195 (EA for el Amarna), lines 24-32. From Moran, William L. The Amarna Letters. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987, 1992. (softcover, ISBN 0-8018-6715-0)
  12. Heimpel, Wolfgang (2003). Letters to the King of Mari: A New Translation, with Historical Introduction, Notes, and Commentary. p. 26 "A closer look at Sutean names shows a small percentage of non-Akkadian and non-Amorite names that nevertheless belong to a Semitic language, presumably Sutean."
  13. Heimpel, Wolfgang (2003). Letters to the King of Mari: A New Translation, with Historical Introduction, Notes, and Commentary. Eisenbrauns. ISBN 9781575060804.
  14. Diakonoff, I.M. “Father Adam.” In: Hans Hirsch and Hermann Hunger (eds.). Vorträge gehalten auf der 28. Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale in Wien, 6.-10. Juli 1981. Archiv für Orientforschung, Beiheft 19. Horn: Berger 1982, 19 of 16-24.
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