Timurid invasions of Simsir

During the Tokhtamysh-Timur war from 1386 to 1395, the Simsir as well as many other Caucasian states and nations actively participated in the war on the side of the Golden Horde. During the Battle of the Kondurcha River in 1391, the first major battle in the war, Alans, Vainakhs, Circassians and Russians fought on the side of Tokhtamysh against Timur. However, the army suffered a devastating defeat, putting Tokhtamysh's army to flight and severely weakening the power of the Horde. Tokhtamysh however managed to recover from the defeat and invaded and plundered the Timurid territory Shirvanshah.[11]

In 1395, due to the recent raid on Shirvanshah, Timur launched his final invasion into the Golden Horde. The armies on both sides Among the commanders of the army of the Horde was Vazar, from the city Sarai. His son, Azdin, a theologian and traveller, claimed to be from the «Alan tribe of Nakhcho», which is the Chechen selfname.[12] The 18th century manuscript from the general Sultan Kazi-Girey which notes that the Chechens were in the vanguard of the Tokhtamysh against the Timurid Empire during the Battle of the Terek river.[13]

The two sides met on the opposite sides of the Terek River in the night of April 14th, 1395 near the modern village Shelkovskaya, Chechnya. Both armies counted around 300,000 men, with Tokhtamysh's army being greater. Both sides then marched along the river. Timur managed to trick Tokhtamysh by sending a large group of civilians to continue the march, while Timur and his army went to the opposite side, eventually managing to cross the river. Soon after Tokhtamysh realized what Timur had planned, however, when he went to stop him, it was already to late, as Timurs side had already set up a camp. Fearing an attack during the night, Timur ordered for a trench to be dug around the camp.[3][14]
Tokhtamysh sent a small force of archers to the Timurid army, which skirmished around the trench, shouted and played instruments, keeping Timurs army awake with the expections of an attack. Meanwhile, Tokhtamysh held the main army back, resting them.[3][15]

On the morning of April 15th, both sides met for battle. The battle began with a blow from the right wing of Tokhtamysh's army to the left wing of Timur's army. The latter then sent his rear guard to assist the left wing, followed by a feigned retreat of Tokhtamysh's right wing. The Amir made a number of tactical mistakes and ended up in a critical situation. Timur's army was confused and lost control for a while. The Horde's Khan sent detachment after detachment to the accumulation of enemy troops in a continuous stream. Only the initiative and independent actions of the military leaders saved Timur from inevitable death. Several of his ambush detachments hit the left flank of Tokhtamysh and by the end of the day the fighting had ceased.[3][14]

On the second day, the battle resumed with an attack by the troops of the left flank of Tokhtamysh. Having overturned the vanguard of the enemy, these detachments upset Timur's right flank and surrounded him. The bloodshed broke out again. Opponents repeatedly retreated and again attacked each other. But on this day, neither side was able to achieve decisive success. Both troops suffered heavy losses. During the battle, the Horde commander Isa-bek entered into a secret agreement with his brother Edigey, who was in Timur's camp, which caused the weakening of the left flank of the Horde army. The betrayal was discovered by another commander–Aktau, who demanded the punishment of Isa-bek, which he was denied. Then Aktau defiantly left the battlefield, taking with him up to 10 thousand soldiers and thereby bringing confusion to the Horde army.[3]

On the third day of the battle, the Horde Khan threw the most courageous warriors into a frontal attack in order to seize the initiative of the battle. Timur aimed his main blow at the weakened left flank of the enemy and, having surrounded him, exterminated him so that "blood flowed in streams across the steppe." Then he went on the offensive along the entire line and by the end of the day finally defeated and scattered the army of the Golden Horde. Thus ended the largest and at the same time inglorious battle of the XIV century for the Horde conquerors. The battle lasted between April 15th to the 17th of the same month. Around 300,000 men participated on both sides, and both lost around 100,000 troops. It was one of the greatest battles in the Middle Ages.[3][14]

Following his defeat, Tokhtamysh was unable to recover, forcing him to flee to Lithuania and also abandoning his headquarters, which was filled with his wealth. While pursuing Tokhtamysh, Timur plundered Tokhtamysh's headquarters and seized his wealth.[14]

Because of the involvement of the North Caucasians, Timur invaded and devastated the region, starting from the West, with Circassia. Timur set up his headquarters in the Pjatigorye region. The Circassians used Scorched earth tactics and burned the area, destroying all food and crops for Timurs army. After a short expedition into the land of the Circassians, the Amir sent an army under Muhammad Sultan Mirza, Miran Shah and Jahan Shah to continue the campaign in Circassia, meanwhile Timur returned to his heaquarters and prepared for the next campaign.[16][3][17]

Following his short campaign in Circassia, Timur personally led the invasion of the Kingdom of Buriberd, which was ruled by the Nakh king Burak Khan and was located in the Pjatigorye region and modern-day Karachai-Cherkessia. Cutting down the forests and paving a road to the mountains, Timur ravaged the state and burned down every settlement and civilian he came across. The chronicle Zafarnama does not state wether Burak Khan was killed/captured or not. After the campaign, Timur returned to his headquarters and arranged a feast.[18]

After his short rest, Timur advanced further east–to the lands owned by the brothers Kuli and T'aus, who each possessed their own fortress. According to Zafarnama, the walls of these fortresses were so high that "Not even an arrow shot from a bow could reach it". Both fortresses were also located on a mountain gorge. Timur called for the climbers among his army to measure the height of the walls for the production of siege ladders. One half of the army then used the siege ladders to climb the walls, while the other half climbed the mountain surrounding the fortresses and then use ropes to get down. During the capture of the two fortresses, the Timurid army suffered heavy casualties, but in the end, the defenders could not hold back the pressure. When both of them finally fell, Timurs soldiers killed all of their inhabitants and destroyed both fortresses, after which Lower Dzhulat was also destroyed.[19]

From there, Timur went to the fortress Pulada, Kingdom of Pulada, which was ruled by the Nakh king Pul Adi. Uturku, an Amir (commander) of Tokhtamysh had been taking refuge in the city. Timur issued an ultimatum to Pul Adi,[20] ordering him to release Uturku, which was denied.[21] Enraged, Timur gave the order to burn down the forest surrounding the fortress, and a fierce battle began. Although his eventual success in conquering , Timur's victory was not simple, due to the fortress being located in a mountain gorge, where numerical superiority meant nothing. During the battle, Uturka managed to flee to Abkhazia, while the inhabitants of the fortress, managed to escape, and took up defensive positions on the mountain side. Timur undertook a short expedition into the mountains, killing those he managed to overtake and burning those he managed to capture. Following his campaign in the mountains, he hunted down Uturka and while doing, he conquered the Kapchigai fortress, which was located somewhere between modern-day Vladikavkaz and the Darial Gorge. The occupation also allowed the Amir the continue his advance into the respective gorge and occupy it, giving him a strategical advantage and allowing him to further continue the hunt for Uturku. After devastating the area, Timur returned to his headquarters and reorganized and rearmed his troops for the campaign in Simsir.[22]

According to some Chechen legends, before the start of the invasion, Makham (Chechen: Махьам), known as Muhammad in Zafarnama, met Timur for negotiations. Makham, a Muslim, rejected his fathers support for Tokhtamysh, since the latter was interested in steppe statehood, while Timur claimed to be a fighter for the Islamic faith. Enraged, Timur told Makham that he would not touch Simsir if Khour II, by then an aged man, came to his headquarters, kneeled before him and asked for mercy. Khour did eventually meet Timur and was ready to humiliate himself. Timur made a long mockery of him, and then executed him. Saddened by his fathers death, Makham, despite his support for Timur, returned to Simsir and led the resistance.[23]
However, historical records and most Chechen legends record that Khour II died long much longer.[24][3]

Timur announced to the population of Simsir that anyone who obeyed would be pardoned, and anyone who resisted would be executed. However, this threat of the conqueror did not have the expected result, as evidenced by the hostilities that unfolded here.[3]
Having won several clashes with the army of Simsir, Timur occupied the area surrounding the Northwest of the Terek River. While moving along the left bank of the Terek River, the Chechens conducted ambushes on his army. During the several ambushes by the Chechens on Timur's army, he organized defensive ditches, which can still be seen in the modern day Braguny and Goity villages.[25]
Eventually, Timur advanced South, constructing a bridge across the Sunzha River on the area South of Braguny. This area is today called «kopir-Aksak Timur» (Chechen: копир-Аксак Тимур), meaning "Bridge of Timur the lame".[3] Advanicng further South, a fierce battle took place on a densely populated town on modern-day Gudermes. The battle ended in a victory for the Timurids and the destruction of the town. Following it's destruction, Timur went West, towards the Khankala gorge, Southeast of modern-day Grozny, where the largest battle in the invasion took place.[3][26][27]

In the Khankala gorge, Southeast of modern-day Grozny, the main battle between the army of Simsir led by Khour II and his son Makham as well as other province rulers of Simsir and the Timurids led by Timur took place. During the battle, Khour realized the size of Timur's army and the numerical inferiority of his, after which he retreated his army into the mountains, to continue resistance in the form of a partisan struggle, while his army was suffering heavy casualties on the way. Following the defeat at Khankala, Makham, together with the province he ruled over, surrendered to Timur. The latter's chroniclers noted that he "obeyed and came with his people to serve, displayed slavish obedience." The lost battle also marked the surrender of other provinces of Simsir.[3]
However, most of Simsir's population continued the resistance and waged a Guerilla war against the hordes of Timur.

Having passed the Khankala gorge, Timur occupied Mt. Suyra-Korta (Chechen: Суьйра-Коьрта; Military peak), which he climbed and then established his new headquarters – Khromets (Chechen language: Хромец).[27][26] From there, he split his army in two: The first one was sent through Shali, Elistanzhi into Cheberloy, Southeastern Chechnya, which was then ravaged and devastated. The second, led by Timur, advanced West, through Nokhchiy-are, central Chechnya, which was, after some clashes with the Chechens, ravaged. Eventually, Timur advanced on Maghas, modern-day Alkhan-Kala, which was rebuilt after the Mongol invasions in the 13th century. After a fierce battle, the city was captured and destroyed, which marked the mass migration of Vainakhs into the mountains, the Timurid occupation of the lowlands and the start of the Timurid conquest of the mountains. The Vainakh began occupying gorges and moving to impregnable places in the mountains.[28]
After a series of clashes in Nokhchiy-are and the further devastation of the region, most of the resistance fighters retreated, opening Timur the way to the Argun gorge.
After conquering Maghas, Timur targeted the fortress T'eman gar ghap, which was located on modern day Achkhoy-Martan. Although their severe numerical inferiority, several Chechen tribes, among whom where the Mart Nakh, Orstkhoy and several others, managed to hold out for a long time against the advance of the Timurid horde, even managing to capture a major general of the Timurid army. In the final storm of the fortress, the right flank of the Chechen army was pacified, and, with the effective use of his archers, Timur's army destroyed the left flank and thus all escape routes were cut off. Some detachments of the army managed to take up defensive lines on the walls of the fortress, whoever the outcome of the battle was already predictable. A small part of the army, mainly made up of the Mart Nakh tribe, fought until the last man while the remaining and wounded detachments managed to break out of the enemy lines, retreat from the battlefield and fortify themselves in the mountains.[29]

Timur stopped his advance to the South in the modern villages Duba-Yurt (Chechen: Дуба-Юрт) and Chishki (Chechen: Чишки), in an area which is called The place where Timur the lame stopped (Chechen: АстагӀ Тимар сецна меттиг; latinized: Astagh-Timur setsna mettig), where he then advanced East – towards the Argun gorge. As Timur began approaching the gorge, its inhabitants alarmed the Mekhk-Khel (National Council of the Vainakh) about the approaching hordes of the Amir through signaling towers stretching from the gorge to Nashkh, a small region in Western Chechnya. The entire Argun gorge was alerted. The nearby mountain communities of Kaloy-Kort, Khakk'oy-Lam, Khaskkhall-duk', Lakha and Lakkha Cholkhanchu all immediately began defensive operations. Soon, armies from all across Simsir began arriving in Argun, thus starting the opposition in the Argun gorge (Chechen: Органа чIожан латтам; latinized: Organa ch'ozhan lattam).[27][30]
Timurs army advanced as South as the town Shotoy. There, a commander from the Shotoy clan (Chechen: Шотой), Kahlo, took control of the Argun forces and waged a long lasting struggle against the hordes of the conqueror. As a result, the National Council of Simsir moved the capital to a geographically inaccessible region – Malkhista (Chechen: Маьлхиста).[31][32][27]

The first army to arrive in Argun was an army from the Zumsoy (Chechen: Зумсой) region led by the commander Irdig. Kahlo, by the time of Irdig's arrival, was wounded and exhausted. He handed over his sword to Irdig, telling him «This sword shall remain in battle until every enemy is slain» and choosing him the next leader of the forces of Argun. The Argun gorge was filled with battle towers and fortresses. All of these factors combined severely hampered the advance of Timur's troops. During the battle, the Tush temple, which, according to legends, had existed for 2,000 years, was destroyed by the troops of conqueror.[32][27]

Although the fierce resistance by the Chechens, the hundreds of thousands of Timur's troops came out successful, pushing the resistance fighters away from Shotoy, although fighting continued in most parts of the gorge.

During and following the fight in the Argun gorge, the Timurids destroyed all churches and pagan temples they came across, which is also mentioned in Zafarnama , in which it says “the fire of his anger burned so much that it burned both dry and wet, and he ruined and destroyed all their churches and their temples.” The Vainakh, who now waged a Guerilla war against the troops of Timur in the mountains of Simsir, which, according to the chroniclers of Timur, were "incomprehensible to the mind", retreated and fortified themselves in impregnable places in the highlands. The following speaks of the conqueror's anger in response to the resistance of the highlanders: "The inhabitants of the local area, by order of Timur, were tied up and thrown off the mountain." "The inhabitants of the local area, by order of Timur", were tied up and thrown off the mountain." Having occupied the town Shotoy, Timur further advanced into the mountains and captured the fortresses Nikhaloy (Chechen: Нихалой) and Guchan-Kkhala (Chechen: Гучан-кхаьлла) and others, until reaching the fortress Ghonat-Ghala. The Timurids tried taking the fortress by storm several times, but failed to take it, after which the fotress was named «Khonat-Kkhala» by Timur's troops, meaning the Winged fortress. The defenders successfully repelled several attacks, and the siege was eventually lifted.[3][27][33][34]
The strength of the resistance of the Chechens is evidenced by the fact that the historiographers found it necessary to emphasize that "Timur personally went against them ...".[3]

Then Timur captured Khacharoy, then turned around and through the gorge of the Sharo-Argun river and occupied the settlements Keloy, Sharo-Argun and D'ai, until the hordes of the Amir reached the fortress of Hima (Chechen: ХIима).[27][33]

As the Timurids were advancing towards the fortress, Mekhk-Kkhel announced a decree, saying «We will fight, crying like a she-wolf (protecting her offspring), but we will no longer let the enemy move forward one step!"». Thus, the peoples militia was given one task: halt Timur's advance, or lose their lives while trying to do so.[27]
Armies from across the mountains of Simsir began arriving in Hima to defend the fortress and halt Timur's further advance into the mountains. The commanders order was «With weeping, we will fight like a whelping wolf» (Chechen: «Делха а делхуш, дехкан зудд сана леттар ду вай»).[35][36]
It was in Hima where the advance of Timur's hordes were stopped. His army failed to capture the fortress and eventually lifted the siege, ending his campaign in the mountains, during which many fortresses and castles were destroyed and the regions Shatoy and Itum-Kkhälloy were ravaged and devastated. Sources note that during the hostilities in Simsir, Timur's soldiers "took many possessions"[37][38]

Tamerlane realized that breaking through the Argun gorge could cost him too much. Having conducted agreements with local elders, Timur and the people of Argun concluded a truce, thus ending the opposition in the Argun gorge. According to Chechen folklore, Timur, as a sign of respect for the resistance of the Chechens, gifted Irdig his sabre. The legend became known as «The sword of reconciliation». Some of it's inhabitant became close associates of Timur, and also entered his guard. One of them being Mammach, from the Ch'antiy Tukkhum of Chechnya, who would accompany the conqueror on further campaigns.[39][40]

Having returned to his headquarters in Khromets, Timur prepared for his most brutal campaign in Simsir yet: The invasion of Nokhch-Mokhk.[40]

Unlike the Argun gorge, Nokhch-Mokhk (Chechen: Нохч-Мохк; East Chechnya, modern-day Vedensky and Nozhai-Yurtovsky Districts) did not have much natural defenses such as rugged terrain, although it was home to huge dense forests, allowing Chechen forces to conduct a fierce guerilla campaign against the hordes of Timur. As the inhabitants of Nokhch-Mokhk heard of the approach of the conqueror's troops, they used improvised materials for the construction of battle towers. The towers were much more vulnerable in comparison to their highland counterparts, however.[41]

Having entered Nokhch-Mokhk, Timur set up his new headquarters in the South of the modern village Engel-Yurt (Chechen: Энгал-Юрт).[42][41]
He then first invaded the capital of Nokhch-Mokhk – the city of Ghaliyt'a. After fierce fighting, Timur conquered and destroyed the city. The city was located on a cliff near the river Yassi (Chechen: Яьсси).[43]
Then, Timur's troops penetrated into the forests of Nokhch-Mokhk. Just like in Argun, there were signal towers stretching throughout the entire region, which allowed the Chechens to better coordinate their attacks. After a long time of fighting however, many of the signaling towers were destroyed. According to Chechen folklore, the Narts, a legendary tribe inhabiting the North Caucasus, single handedly defended their belongings with a sword, a mace and a shield.[44][3]

After fierce and brutal fighting, Timur managed to conquer Nokhch-Mokh, after which he ravaged and devastated the region. The remaining resistance fighters, mainly the Biltoy, Benoy, Gendargenoy, Iallaroy and Gunoy clans fled the region through Cheberloy into Nashkh, a small region in Western Chechnya, where they fortified themselves. Before they did however, the remaining resistance fighters burned down most of the forests in the region to prevent Timur's army from supplying themselves.[45]

In retrubution for their recent support for Simsir, Timur, following his invasion of Nokhch-Mokhk, invaded and plundered Aukh (Chechen: Ӏовхой; romanized: Ovkhoy), known as Avakhar in Zafarnama. Timur devastated the region until eventually meeting with the main army of the Avakhar led by Maada. The Chechen forces were outnumbered and during the fierce battle that ensued, their forces were almost defeated. During the battle however, a commander and ambassador of the Gazikumukh Shamkhalate by the name Shovkhal arrived and asked the Avakhar «Hey, you people, if you are Muslim, tell us what kind of war you are fighting and who are fighting against!». The Avakhar replied «We are Muslim, alhamdulillah, but we are inferior in arms». Shovkhal told the Avakhar to use their bows until a Gazikumukh army arrives. The Avakhar made use of the advice and rained down arrows on the enemy. This greatly hampered the advance of Timurid troops and with the arrival of the Gazikumukhs, the army of Timur was forced to retreat.[46][47]

Towards the end of 1395, Timur advanced North, into the territory of modern day Stavropol Krai, ravaged and eventually conquered the region. While advancing towards the Kuma River, Timur destroyed the city Madzhar. This ended Simsir's rule in modern-day Northern Dagestan and Stavropol Krai.[48][49]

In Oktober of 1395, Timur invaded the largest and most populated city of Simsir, Almak, which was made up of 7,000 to 8,000 households. Although the fight was brutal and fierce, and the Timurids suffered heavy casualties, they eventually conquered the city, after which it was destroyed.[48][49]

In winter of 1395, Tamerlanes campaign in Dagestan began. Coming from Almak, Timur crossed the Terek River and eventually reached modern-day Tarki, where he then moved to an area known as Ushkudzhe, where the villages Kadar and Dorgeli are located nearby. Although the Avakhar and Gazikumukhs had previously, before the Timurid invasions, waged Jihad in the region, they went to help the native people out in their fight against Timur. With an army numbering 3,000, the joint army led by Maada and Shovkhal met the hordes of Timur in Ushkudzhe. In the fierce battle that ensued, the army of Aukh and the Gazikumukh Shamkhalate was defeated. Shovkhal was also killed during the battle, and his head was later on brought to Timur.[50][17]
He, with the head, approached the enemy soldiers his army had captured during the battle, and asked them «Before, you, adherents of Islam, always fought with the infidels; what has become now, that you, stepping back from this, went to their aid?» The captives admitted their guilt and vowed not to attack Timur again, for which they received large gifts and were released under the condition that they keep "Fighting the enemies of the faith". Later on, the elders, nobles and rulers of both Aukh and the Gazikumukh Shamkhalate appeared to Timur, who recognized him and his rule, for which they also received gifts.[50][17]

From Ushkudzhe, Timur advanced on the fortress Nerges (Not far from todays Arkas) and conquered it by storm. After it was looted, the fortress was destroyed and troops were sent to hunt down those who managed to escape as well as to neighboring settlements. Then, Timur conquered the fortresses Mika, Balu and Derkelu.[51]

Timur's hordes eventually invaded the Tsakhur Khanate, a Lezgin state, which ended in a failure of his troops in conquering the region. By using their dense forests to wage a Guerilla campaign, the Lezgins inflicted such huge losses on Tamerlanes army that it was forced to retreat.[51]

Following the failed invasion of the Tsakhur Khanate, Tamerlane invaded, ravaged and then destroyed the Avar Khanate, which was ruled by the brother of Khour II, Surakat. The Surak family was expelled from power, and the land was lost to Shirvanshah. Having heard of the death of his brother, Surakat, together with his son Bayr, his remaining army and a convoy filled weapons and his wealth, moved to Simsir (see below).[52][53]

After returning to Aukh for a short time, Timur left the North Caucasus and pursued the fleeing Tokhtamysh, leaving garrisons of his army in the mountains of Chechnya behind.

The chronicle Zafarnama, just like with Khour II, does not give any information as to how Makham died. Chechen folklore speak of an assassination from Chechen mountaineers, after which Khour II was put into power once again, until he was treacherously executed during negotiations with Timur.[24]

Having heard of the death of his brother, Surakat, together with his son Bayr, his remaining army and a convoy filled weapons and his wealth, moved to Simsir, where he worked on re-establishing his power. He moved into and fortified himself in the K'irda fortress, Terloy Mokhk.[52][53]
Soon after, the settlement Parsma was established in the Georgian region Tusheti, where meetings were organized to discuss further actions against the army of Timur. These activities were carried out under the framework of the Vainakh-Georgian union.[54]
After a series of successful military actions of the united Simsir-Georgian armies mainly led by Surakat and George VII against the Timurids between 1396 and 1398 and also minor actions lasting until the end of the 14th century, most of the fortresses and garrisons of the latter were destroyed. The last Timurid fortress, the Khan Kala fortress on the Kerket pass, was destroyed by Sarka, the youngest son of Surakat. Having ousted the Timurids from the Cheberloy region, the Surak family left Terloy Mokhk and moved to the Sadoy village Upper Cheberloy.[54]

The Vainakh returned to the lowlands in the 15th century after they were forced to the highlands during the Mongol and Timurid invasions. Upon settling in the lowlands, the Vainakh clashed with the Kabardian and Kumyk feudal lords who sought to rule over the plains. As a result, the feudal lords subjected several Vainakh communities to their rule and forced them to pay tribute to them in the form of sheep or other livestock. However, not all of them were subdued, the rest continued to resist, and eventually, over a long period of time (up until the 18th century), the Vainakh emerged victorious under the leaders such as Zok-K'ant, Tunin Visa and Aldaman Gheza.

Thus, having made themselves free from the rule of the Kabardian and Kumyk lords, the Chechens banished their own feudal lords as well and began to live again united in free communities (societies). The Vainakhs have a saying: ”When one is voted a prince (ela) the others become their slaves”, which apparently dates back to that time.

- George Anchabadze, The Vainakhs: Chechen and Ingush, p. 27

In Nakh folklore, there are several legends regarding the invasion of Timur. The most popular being the "sword of reconciliation", which states that after the Battle of Shotoy, Timur gifted his sword to Irdig as a sign of respect for the Chechens' resistance.

Similar stories claim that Timur gifted the Chechen people gold and other riches, which the Chechen elders of today claim to have been stolen during the deportation of the Chechens and Ingush.

Another popular story, is after a battle, which ended in a Timurid victory, only one man survived, a singer, who motivated the Chechen fighters through his music. He was captured and taken to Timur, who asked him, "Is anyone still alive?", to which the man replied "No". "Have they all died?", asked Timur, to which he responded "Yes", "And how did you survive?" "I could not hold the blade in my hands during the battle, i fell, and they twisted me, otherwise i would've died together with everyone." Amazed by the courage of the Chechen people, Timur let him go.[55]