Women in Venezuela

In 2007, the country enacted Ley Organica Sobre el Derecho de las Mujeres a una Vida Libre de Violencia (Organic Law on the Right of Women to a Life Free of Violence).[5]

During the crisis in Venezuela under the government of Nicolás Maduro, women in Venezuela became more vulnerable to sexual violence as a result of weak institutions and socioeconomic difficulties according to the Atlantic Council.[6] The crisis has left Venezuelan women exposed to exploitation through sex trafficking and prostitution.[6]

In 2017, about 2,795 women were murdered based on their gender.[7] With most Venezuelans having a lack of trust in the country's armed forces and public safety, "fewer women are reporting gender-based violence, and femicide has increased by 50%."[7]

See also:

• Human trafficking in Venezuela

Due to the ongoing political and economic crisis in Venezuela, the country has been facing challenges in providing basic healthcare services and supplies to its population.[8] The healthcare system has suffered from a lack of investment, shortages of medical equipment and medications, and a significant exodus of healthcare professionals. In an interview report by the Human Rights Watch, doctors and patients reported the shortage and absence of certain medication, including but not limited to: antibiotics, anti-seizure medication, anti-convulsants, muscle relaxants, and painkillers.[9] Unsanitary conditions are caused by short supplies of PPE (personal protective equipment), such as "sterile gloves and gauze, antiseptics, medical alcohol, scalpels, needles, catheters, IV solutions, nebulization kits, and surgical sutures."[9]

Humanitarian Crisis in Venezuela

Consequently, the Venezuelan Health Ministry reports that rates of infant and maternal mortality in 2016 were "substantially higher" than those of previous years.[10] A doctor interviewed by the Human Rights Watch explains the failure in prenatal care in Venezuela:

Preventive medicine is no longer practiced, and in fact, right now, an [expectant] mother finds it difficult to find iron supplements, folic acid, or multivitamins at the pharmacy. Imagine now going to a clinic and getting it for free; that no longer exists. These shortcomings have consequences, including children who are born with a low birth weight or nutritional deficiencies, and for the mothers, infectious problems such as urinary infections that are left untreated. That is why you have a high rate of complications, because these issues are not controlled [by prenatal care]. Then, this results in a high risk of neonatal mortality.

Another challenge facing women, particularly mothers, in Venezuela is the high transmission rate of HIV from mother to child. The usual procedures of antiretroviral medicine use pre-birth, a scheduled caesarean delivery during birth, and post-natal prophylactic treatment of the newborn are no longer wide-spread protocols in the country.[9] Not only are many infant mortalities inevitable, but so are complicated births and, ultimately, complicated lives for infants and children in Venezuela.

External video
The strict beauty standards Venezuelan women experience, resulting in insecurity and surgeries on YouTube

Miss Teen Universe Venezuela and Cuba

According to CEPAZ, women in Venezuela are at risk due to gender discrimination and the "hyper-sexualized stereotypes of Venezuelan women".[6] The professional women and businesswomen of Venezuela generally "work hard at looking great" and they "dress to impress"; their business dress include wearing feminine attire.[11]

Main article: Intersectionality

Women in Venezuela are not only susceptible to gender violence and discrimination, but may experience double discrimination if they also belong to another marginalized group. Intersectionality is an analytical framework for understanding how a person's various social and political identities combine to create different modes of discrimination and privilege.

For example, Afro-Venezuelan women may experience discrimination or violence from not only being a woman, but also due to her race as a non-white woman. Discrimination against Afro-Venezuelan women can manifest in the form of racial profiling, limited opportunities for advancement, and disproportionate rates of poverty. Skin and phenotype are methods that global society and its institutions use to perpetuate traditional gender roles and stereotypes. One way traditional gender roles are perpetuated in Venezuelan society is through the Miss Universe Pageant. Latina Magazine, for example, can be argued to portray Latinas that challenge these norms and break free from traditional expectations; however, the same magazine can also send conflicting messages about Latina empowerment, with white-centric beauty standards as advertisements and Miss Universe commentary.[12]

Women’s suffrage in Venezuela was first granted with the Constitution of 1947, which was considered the most politically and socially liberal compared to its predecessors.[13][14] Women had started organising around the 1930s and 1940s with the death of dictator Juan Vicente Gómez.[15] But it was not until the 1950s that women from all social classes got involved and not only middle-class women.[16] Women also participated in the guerilla struggles during the 1960s but they did not take leading roles due to the male-dominated organisational character of these combatant groups.[17] In the 1970s through so-called Popular Women's Circles (Círculos Femeninos Populares) women tried to organise autonomously, address the problems of poor women and assist them with health, education and employment initiatives. However, their dependence on outside funding and support of male-ruled NGOs often constrained their goals.[16]

With Hugo Chávez’s election for president a new constitution was adopted in 1999, which included the Article 21 that establishes the principle of equality and does not permit any discrimination "based on race, sex, creed or social standing".[18][19] The Chavismo movement brought also a resurgence in women’s participation in politics[16] and the creation of a National Institute for Women (INAMujer). This organ supervised groups such as the Bolivarian Women’s Forces (Fuerzas Bolivarianas) and the Meeting Points (Puntos de Encuentro) which consisted of women who committed to Chávez and his administration and supported the programs they were implementing.[20][16] These social programs aimed to provide the lower-class population with literacy, employment training, health care, assistance to obtain high school and university degrees and in the most disadvantaged neighbourhoods also with daily meals. Although women were the main participants of these programs, they were not directed exclusively at women, but at the entire population.[20]

Even though, women's mobilization increased in Chávez's Venezuela, these women were not committing to a women's agenda as other feminist groups were doing in Latin America at that time. Some Venezuelan women were focused on the defense of Chavismo, and while they did challenge some aspects of women's subordination, they also rejected the idea of identifying with feminism.[16] The degree to which this rejection still holds is unknown.

The crisis in Venezuela that occurred during the tenure of Chávez's successor Nicolás Maduro resulted with women becoming more reliant on discriminatory social policies of the government, making them more vulnerable if they opposed Maduro's government.[6]

The following women have not only contributed to the music scene in Venezuela but have also gained international recognition for their talent and artistry:

Maria Teresa Chacín (1946-present), is a Venezuelan singer and composer who has won numerous awards and is known for her contributions to the development of Venezuelan music.[21] Chacín has released numerous albums, showcasing her talent across various genres, including folk, traditional Venezuelan music, and pop music.

Soledad Bravo (1943-present), is a renowned singer who has released over 30 albums and is known for her powerful voice and political activism. Bravo's work reflects her involvement in social and political causes, addressing themes of social justice, human rights, and freedom.[21] Throughout her career, she has recorded and performed songs in various languages, gaining international acclaim.

Many female Venezuelan artists have gained recognition both nationally and internationally for their unique styles and creative expressions.

Some notable Venezuelan female artists include the following:

Marisol Escobar (1930-2016), commonly known as Marisol, was a sculptor known for her large-scale works that explored themes of identity and cultural heritage.[22] She gained prominence in the 1960s for her distinctive figurative sculptures that blended Pop art, folk art, and contemporary influences. Marisol's work often depicted portraits of celebrities and political figures, using materials such as wood, plaster, and others to create larger-than-life figures.[22]

Marisol Escobar, Venezuelan-American artist and sculptor.

Gego (1912-1994), born Gertrud Goldschmidt in Germany, was a sculptor and printmaker known for her intricate wire sculptures.[23] Her work blurred the boundaries between sculpture and drawing, often exploring light, space, and movement.

Tecla Tofano (1927-1995), was an Italian-Venezuelan ceramist, draftswoman, metalsmith, and writer.[24] Between 1954 and 1956, Tofano studied ceramics and enameling at the Escuela de Artes Plásticas y Aplicadas in Caracas" under Miguel Arroyo (1920-2004).[24] Her work focused on consumer culture, a direct link to her organization and mobilization of the left-wing political party, "Movimiento al Socialismo."

Some notable Venezuelan female writers include the following:

Teresa de la Parra (1889-1936), was a novelist and essayist known for her exploration of the roles of women in Venezuelan society.[25] She is best known for her 1924 novel "Ifigenia: Diario de una señorita que escribió porque se fastidiaba."[26] The novel explores the life of a young Venezuelan woman in Paris and addresses themes of identity, gender, and societal expectations.

Ana Teresa Torres (1945-present), is a Venezuelan novelist and journalist who has won numerous awards for her work. Her literary works often explore social and political issues in Venezuela, particularly incorporating elements of magical realism and historical fiction.[27] Her acclaimed novel "Doña Inés contra el olvido" portrays the life of a female guerrilla fighter during the Venezuelan War of Independence.[28]

Family law was overhauled in 1982.[29] Cohabitation has increased in Venezuela since the 1990s.[30]

In 1997, Article 144 of the Suffrage and Political Participation Organic Act established a 30% women quota in the lists of the parliamentary candidates. In 2000 the National Electoral Council suspended this article, declaring it unconstitutional because it violated the equality principle of the Article 21.[20] The expected consequence of this suspension was parity and an increase of the quota to 50%, but this has not been the case due to poor implementations and no measures being taken for infringements of legislations.[14] As of 2019, 38 out of 165 deputies elected to the National Assembly are women.[1] The number of ministries led by female politicians has decreased, compared to Chávez's final cabinet, from 39% to 24%. The Supreme Tribunal with 32 appointed judges (16 women and 16 men) is the only institution in Venezuela that presents parity of gender in its members.[14] At the community level women are increasingly present, which is crucial in the empowerment of lower-class barrio women. Nonetheless, these female leaders of communal councils have reported that their presence is ignored at the higher levels and they are being excluded from political opportunities.[31]

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