Outline of thought

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to thought (thinking):

A thinking chimpanzee

Thought (also called thinking) – mental process in which beings form psychological associations and models of the world. Thinking is manipulating information, as when we form concepts, engage in problem solving, reason and make decisions. Thought, the act of thinking, produces more thoughts. A thought may be an idea, an image, a sound or even control an emotional feeling.

Nature of thought

Thought (or thinking) can be described as all of the following:

  • An activity taking place in a:
    • brain – organ that serves as the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals (only a few invertebrates such as sponges, jellyfish, adult sea squirts and starfish do not have a brain). It is the physical structure associated with the mind.
    • computer (see § Machine thought below) – general purpose device that can be programmed to carry out a set of arithmetic or logical operations automatically. Since a sequence of operations (an algorithm) can be readily changed, the computer can solve more than one kind of problem.
  • An activity of intelligence – intelligence is the intellectual process of which is marked by cognition, motivation, and self-awareness.[3] Through intelligence, living creatures possess the cognitive abilities to learn, form concepts, understand, apply logic, and reason, including the capacities to recognize patterns, comprehend ideas, plan, problem solve, make decisions, retaining, and use language to communicate. Intelligence enables living creatures to experience and think.
    • A type of mental process – something that individuals can do with their minds. Mental processes include perception, memory, thinking, volition, and emotion. Sometimes the term cognitive function is used instead.
  • A biological adaptation mechanism[4]
    • Neural network explanation: Thoughts are created by the summation of neural outputs and connections of which vectors form. These vectors describe the magnitude and direction of the connections and action between neurons. The graphs of these vectors can represent a network of neurons whose connections fire in different ways over time as synapses fire. These large thought vectors in the brain cause other vectors of activity. For example: An input from the environment is received by the neural network. The network changes the magnitude and outputs of individual neurons. The altered network outputs the symbols needed to make sense of the input.

Types of thoughts
  • Concept – Mental representation or an abstract object
    • Abstract concept – Metaphysics concept covering the divide between two types of entities
    • Concrete concept – Metaphysics concept covering the divide between two types of entities
  • Conjecture – Proposition in mathematics that is unproven
  • Decision (see Decision-making)
  • Definition – Statement that attaches a meaning to a term
  • Explanation – Set of statements constructed to describe a set of facts which clarifies causes
  • Hypothesis – Proposed explanation for an observation, phenomenon, or scientific problem
  • Idea – Mental image or concept
  • Logical argument – Attempt to persuade or to determine the truth of a conclusion
  • Logical assertion – Statement in a metalanguage
  • Mental image – Representation in the mind of objects, activities or events, whether they existed or not
  • Percept / Perception
  • Premise – Statement supporting an argument
  • Proposition – Bearer of truth or falsity
  • Syllogism – Type of logical argument that applies deductive reasoning
  • Theory – Supposition or system of ideas intended to explain something
  • Thought experiment – Hypothetical situation

Content of thoughts
  • Argument – Attempt to persuade or to determine the truth of a conclusion
  • Belief – Mental state of holding a proposition or premise to be true
  • Communication – Transmission of information
  • Conceptual model – Theoretical framework
  • Data – Units of information
  • Information – Facts provided or learned about something or someone
  • Knowledge – Awareness of facts or being competent
  • Mental model – Way of representing external reality within one's mind
  • Schema – Technique to encode and retrieve memories
  • Self-concept – One's internal beliefs about oneself

Types of thought (thinking)

Listed below are types of thought, also known as thinking processes.

Animal thought
Further information: Animal cognition and Animal intelligence

Human thought

Human thought – Cognitive process independent of the senses

  • Analysis – Process of understanding a complex topic or substance
  • Awareness – State or ability to perceive, to feel, or to be conscious of events, objects, or sensory patterns
  • Calculation – Arithmetical calculations using only the human brain
    • Estimation – Process of finding an approximation
  • Categorization – Organization of things, objects, and ideas
  • Cognitive restructuring – Type of psychological therapy
  • Computational thinking – Set of problem-solving methods
  • Convergent thinking – Ability to answer questions correctly without the need for novel ideas
  • Counterfactual thinking – Concept in psychology
  • Critical thinking – Analysis of facts to form a judgment
  • Data thinking – Framework for analyzing data
  • Evaluation – Systematic determination of a subject's merit, worth and significance
  • Habit – Routine of behavior that is repeated regularly and tends to occur subconsciously
  • Integrative thinking – Reframing Critical Thinking Skills (CTS) for Group-Decision-Support-Systems (GDSS)
  • Intrapersonal communication – Communication with oneself
  • Introspection – Examining one's own thoughts and feelings
  • Learning – Process of acquiring new knowledge and memory
  • Parallel thinking
  • Prediction – Statement about a future event
  • Recollection – Retrieval of events or information from the past
  • Stochastic thinking
  • Strategic thinking – Cognitive activity
  • Training – Acquisition of knowledge, skills, and competencies as a result of teaching or practice
  • Visual thinking – Thinking through visual processing

Classifications of thought

Creative processes

Decision-making
Main article: Decision-making
  • Choice – Deciding between multiple options
  • Cybernetics – Transdisciplinary field concerned with regulatory and purposive systems
  • Decision theory – Branch of applied probability theory
  • Executive functions – Cognitive processes necessary for control of behavior
  • Goals and goal setting – Idea of the future or result that a person or group wants to achieve
  • Judgement – Decision making; evaluation of evidence to make a decision
  • Planning – Regarding the activities required to achieve a desired goal
  • Rational choice theory – Sociological theory
  • Speech act – Utterance that serves a performative function
  • Value (personal and cultural) – Personal value, basis for ethical action
  • Value judgment – Philosophical and ethical concept

Erroneous thinking
See also: Error and Human error
  • Black and white thinking – Failure to think in nuances
  • Catastrophization – Statement that represents something in an excessive manner
  • Cognitive bias – Systematic pattern of deviation from norm or rationality in judgment
  • Cognitive distortion – Exaggerated or irrational thought patterns
  • Dysrationalia – Inability to think and behave rationally despite adequate intelligence
  • Emotional reasoning – a cognitive process by which one's own emotional reaction is used to prove something is true
  • Exaggeration – Statement that represents something in an excessive manner
  • Foolishness – Lack of social norms causing offence or similar effect
  • Fallacies – Argument that uses faulty reasoning (see also List of fallacies)
    • Fallacies of definition – Ways in which a term may be poorly defined
    • Logical fallacy – Form of incorrect argument in natural language
  • Groupthink – Psychological phenomenon that occurs within a group of people
  • Irrationality – Thinking, talking, or acting without inclusion of rationality
  • Linguistic error – Incorrect or inaccurate actions
  • Magical thinking – Belief in the connection of unrelated events
  • Minimisation (psychology) – Type of deception
  • Motivated reasoning – Using emotionally-biased reasoning to produce justifications or make decisions
  • Rationalization (psychology) – Psychological defense mechanism
  • Rhetoric – Art of persuasion
  • Straight and Crooked Thinking – Book by Robert H. Thouless (book)
  • Target fixation – Attentional phenomenon
  • Wishful thinking – Formation of beliefs based on what might be pleasing to imagine

Emotional intelligence (emotionally based thinking)

Emotional intelligence – Capability to understand one's emotions and use this understanding to guide thinking and behavior

Problem solving

Problem solving – Approaches to problem solving

  • Problem solving steps
    • Problem finding – Problem discovery
    • Problem shaping
  • Process of elimination – Logical method to identify an entity of interest among several ones by excluding all other entities
  • Systems thinking – Examining complex systems as a whole
    • Critical systems thinking – systems thinking multimethodology for understanding and designing stakeholder intervention
  • Problem-solving strategy – steps one would use to find the problem(s) that are in the way to getting to one’s own goal. Some would refer to this as the ‘problem-solving cycle’ (Bransford & Stein, 1993). In this cycle one will recognize the problem, define the problem, develop a strategy to fix the problem, organize the knowledge of the problem cycle, figure-out the resources at the user's disposal, monitor one's progress, and evaluate the solution for accuracy.
    • Abstraction – Process of generalisation – solving the problem in a model of the system before applying it to the real system
    • Analogy – Cognitive process of transferring information or meaning from a particular subject to another – using a solution that solves an analogous problem
    • Brainstorming – Group creativity technique – (especially among groups of people) suggesting a large number of solutions or ideas and combining and developing them until an optimum solution is found
    • Divide and conquer – Process of understanding a complex topic or substance – breaking down a large, complex problem into smaller, solvable problems
    • Hypothesis testing – Method of statistical inference – assuming a possible explanation to the problem and trying to prove (or, in some contexts, disprove) the assumption
    • Lateral thinking – Manner of solving problems – approaching solutions indirectly and creatively
      • Oblique Strategies – Set of cards intended to promote creativity
      • Parallel thinking
      • Provocative operation – PO is short for Peace Opportunity and one uses the word anytime one is not 100% clear on an idea expressed by another
      • Six Thinking Hats – 1985 book by Maltese Dr. Edward de Bono
    • Means-ends analysis – Problem solving technique – choosing an action at each step to move closer to the goal
    • Morphological analysis – Exploration of possible solutions – assessing the output and interactions of an entire system
    • Proof – Sufficient evidence/argument for truth – try to prove that the problem cannot be solved. The point where the proof fails will be the starting point for solving it
    • Reduction – transformation of one computational problem to another, used to show that the second problem is as difficult as the first – transforming the problem into another problem for which solutions exist
    • Research – Systematic study undertaken to increase knowledge – employing existing ideas or adapting existing solutions to similar problems
    • Root cause analysis – Method of identifying the fundamental causes of faults or problems – identifying the cause of a problem
    • Thinking outside the box – Metaphor for unconventional thinking
    • Trial-and-error – Method of problem-solving – testing possible solutions until the right one is found
    • Troubleshooting – Form of problem solving, often applied to repair failed products or processes –
  • Problem-solving methodology
    • 5 Whys – Iterative interrogative technique
    • Decision cycle – Sequence of steps for decision-making
    • Eight Disciplines Problem Solving – Eight Disciplines of Team-Oriented Problem Solving Method
    • GROW model – Method for goal setting and problem solving
    • How to Solve It – Book by George Pólya
    • Learning cycle – How people learn from experience
    • OODA loop – Observe–orient–decide–act cycle (observe, orient, decide, and act)
    • PDCA – Iterative design and management method used in business (plan–do–check–act)
    • Problem structuring methods
    • RPR Problem Diagnosis – problem diagnosis method designed to determine the root cause of IT problems (rapid problem resolution)
    • TRIZ – Problem-solving tools (in Russian: Teoriya Resheniya Izobretatelskikh Zadatch, "theory of solving inventor's problems")
    • Vertical thinking – Thinking technique that involves an analytical approach to problem solving

Reasoning

Reasoning – Capacity for consciously making sense of things

  • Abstract thinking – Process of generalisation
  • Adaptive reasoning
  • Analogical reasoning – Cognitive process of transferring information or meaning from a particular subject to another
  • Analytic reasoning – Ability to look at information and discern patterns
  • Case-based reasoning – Process of solving new problems based on the solutions of similar past problems
  • Critical thinking – Analysis of facts to form a judgment
  • Defeasible reasoning – Reasoning that is rationally compelling, though not deductively valid – from authority: if p then (defeasibly) q
  • Diagrammatic reasoning – reasoning by the mean of visual representations – reasoning by means of visual representations. Visualizing concepts and ideas with of diagrams and imagery instead of by linguistic or algebraic means
  • Emotional reasoning – a cognitive process by which one's own emotional reaction is used to prove something is true (erroneous) – a cognitive distortion in which emotion overpowers reason, to the point the subject is unwilling or unable to accept the reality of a situation because of it.
  • Fallacious reasoning – Argument that uses faulty reasoning (erroneous) – logical errors
  • Heuristic – Problem-solving methods
  • Historical thinking
  • Intuitive reasoning – Ability to acquire knowledge, without conscious reasoning
  • Lateral thinking – Manner of solving problems
  • Logic – Study of correct reasoning / Logical reasoning
    • Abductive reasoning – Inference seeking the simplest and most likely explanation – from data and theory: p and q are correlated, and q is sufficient for p; hence, if p then (abducibly) q as cause
    • Deductive reasoning – Form of reasoning – from meaning postulate, axiom, or contingent assertion: if p then q (i.e., q or not-p)
    • Inductive reasoning – Method of logical reasoning – theory formation; from data, coherence, simplicity, and confirmation: (inducibly) "if p then q"; hence, if p then (deducibly-but-revisably) q
    • Inference – Steps in reasoning
  • Moral reasoning – Study in psychology that overlaps with moral philosophy – process in which an individual tries to determine the difference between what is right and what is wrong in a personal situation by using logic.[5] This is an important and often daily process that people use in an attempt to do the right thing. Every day for instance, people are faced with the dilemma of whether or not to lie in a given situation. People make this decision by reasoning the morality of the action and weighing that against its consequences.
  • Probabilistic reasoning – use of probability and logic to deal with uncertain situations – from combinatorics and indifference: if p then (probably) q
  • Proportional reasoning – using "the concept of proportions when analyzing and solving a mathematical situation."[6]
  • Rational thinking – Quality of being agreeable to reason
  • Semiosis – Mode of communication
  • Statistical reasoning – Study of the collection, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of data – from data and presumption: the frequency of qs among ps is high (or inference from a model fit to data); hence, (in the right context) if p then (probably) q
  • Strategic thinking – Cognitive activity
  • Synthetic reasoning – Semantic distinction in philosophy
  • Verbal reasoning – understanding and reasoning using concepts framed in words – understanding and reasoning using concepts framed in words
  • Visual reasoning – process of manipulating one's mental image of an object in order to reach a certain conclusion – for example, mentally constructing a piece of machinery to experiment with different mechanisms

Machine thought
Main articles: Machine thought and Outline of artificial intelligence
  • Artificial creativity
  • Automated reasoning
    • Commonsense reasoning
    • Model-based reasoning
    • Opportunistic reasoning
    • Qualitative reasoning – automated reasoning about continuous aspects of the physical world, such as space, time, and quantity, for the purpose of problem solving and planning using qualitative rather than quantitative information
    • Spatial–temporal reasoning
    • Textual case based reasoning
  • Computer program (recorded machine thought instructions)
  • Human-based computation

Organizational thought

Organizational thought (thinking by organizations)

Aspects of the thinker

Aspects of the thinker which may affect (help or hamper) his or her thinking:

  • Ability – Ability to influence the behavior of others
  • Aptitude – Ability; competence to do a certain kind of work at a certain level
  • Attitude – Concept in psychology and communication studies
  • Behavior – Actions by entities within a system
  • Cognitive style – Concept in cognitive psychology
  • Common sense – Sound practical judgement in everyday matters
  • Experience – Conscious event, perception or practical knowledge
  • Instinct – Behaviour due to innate biological factors
  • Intelligence – Ability to perceive, infer, acquire, retain and apply information.
  • Metacognition – Thinking about thinking, higher-order thinking skills
  • Mental image – Representation in the mind of objects, activities or events, whether they existed or not
  • Mindset – Term in decision theory and general systems theory
  • Preference – To like one thing more than another
  • Rationality – Quality of being agreeable to reason
  • Skill – Ability to carry out a task
  • Wisdom – Ability to think and act using knowledge, experience, understanding, common sense and insight
    • Sapience – Ability to think and act using knowledge, experience, understanding, common sense and insight

Properties of thought
  • Accuracy and precision – Characterization of measurement error
  • Cogency
  • Dogma – Belief(s) accepted by members of a group without question
  • Effectiveness – Capability of producing the desired result
  • Efficacy – Ability to finish a task satisfactorily
  • Efficiency – Degree to which a process minimizes waste of resources
  • Freethought – Position that beliefs should be formed only on the basis of logic, reason, and empiricism
  • Frugality – Being frugal in the consumption of consumable resources
  • Meaning – Study of meaning in language
  • Prudence – Ability of a person to regulate themselves with the use of reason
  • Rights – Legal, social, or ethical principles
  • Skepticism – Doubtful attitude toward knowledge claims
  • Soundness – Term in logic and deductive reasoning
  • Validity – Argument whose conclusion must be true if its premises are
  • Value theory – Concept in sociology and philosophy
  • Wrongdoing – Act that is illegal or immoral

Fields that study thought

Thought tools and thought research
  • Cognitive model – Model of cognition's operation
  • Design tool – objects, media, or computer programs, which can be used to design
  • Diagram – Symbolic representation of information using visualization techniques
    • Argument map – Visual representation of the structure of an argument
    • Concept map – Diagram showing relationships among concepts
    • Mind map – Diagram to visually organize information
  • DSRP – Theory and method of thinking
  • Intelligence amplification – Use of information technology to augment human intelligence
  • Language – Structured system of communication
  • Meditation – Practice of mindfulness
  • Six Thinking Hats – 1985 book by Maltese Dr. Edward de Bono
  • Synectics – Thought process for making the strange familiar and the familiar strange

History of thinking

History of reasoning – Capacity for consciously making sense of things

Nootropics (cognitive enhancers and smart drugs)

Nootropic – Compound intended to improve cognitive function

See also: List of nootropics

Substances that improve mental performance:

  • 5-Hydroxytryptophan, also known as 5-HTP – chemical compound
  • Adrafinil – Wakefulness-promoting drug (Olmifon)
  • Aniracetam – Medication
  • Withania somnifera, also known as Ashwagandha – Species of plant
  • Bacopa monnieri – Species of aquatic plant (Brahmi)
  • Caffeine – Central nervous system stimulant
  • Acetylcarnitine, also known as Acetyl-L-carnitine – Form of L-carnitine (ALCAR)
  • Meclofenoxate, also known as Centrophenoxine – Chemical compound
  • Choline – Chemical compound and essential nutrient
  • Cholinergic – Agent which mimics choline
  • Chromium – chemical element with symbol Cr and atomic number 24
  • Coenzyme Q10 – Chemical compound
  • Coffee – Brewed beverage made from coffee beans
  • Creatine – Chemical compound
  • Dimethylethanolamine (DMAE) – chemical compound
  • Ergoloid mesylates – Chemical compound (Hydergine)
  • Huperzine A – Chemical compound
  • Idebenone – Chemical compound
  • Inositol – Carbocyclic sugar
  • L-DOPA – Chemical compound
  • Lecithin – Generic term for amphiphilic substances of plant and animal origin
  • Lemon balm – Species of plant (Melissa Officinalis)
  • Lipoic acid – pair of enantiomers
  • Methylphenidate – Central nervous system stimulant (Ritalin)
  • Modafinil – Eugeroic medication (Provigil)
  • Oxiracetam – Chemical compound
  • Phenibut – CNS depressant medication
  • Phenylalanine – Type of α-amino acid
  • Piracetam – Chemical compound (Nootropil)
  • Pramiracetam – Chemical compound
  • Pyritinol – Chemical compound (Enerbol)
  • Rhodiola rosea – Species of flowering plant in the stonecrop family Crassulaceae
  • Selegiline (Deprenyl) – Monoamine oxidase inhibitor
  • Eleutherococcus senticosus, also known as Siberian ginseng – Species of flowering plant
  • Hypericum perforatum, also known as St John's Wort – Flowering plant in the St John's wort family Hypericaceae
  • Sutherlandia frutescens – Species of legume
  • Tea – Hot drink made from water and tea leaves
  • Theanine – Amino acid
  • Theophylline – Drug used to treat respiratory diseases
  • Tryptophan – chemical compound
  • Tyrosine – Amino acid
  • Vasopressin – Mammalian hormone released from the pituitary gland
  • Vinpocetine – Chemical compound
  • Vitamin B3, also known as Nicotinic acid – Class of chemically related vitamers
  • Vitamin B5 – chemical compound
  • Vitamin B6 – Class of chemically related vitamins
  • Vitamin B12 – Vitamin used in animal cells' metabolism
  • Vitamin C – Essential nutrient found in citrus fruits and other foods
  • Pausinystalia johimbe, also known as Yohimbe – Species of flowering plant

Organizational thinking concepts
Main articles: Organizational studies and Industrial and organizational psychology
  • Attribution theory – The process by which individuals explain the causes of behavior and events
  • Communication – Transmission of information
  • Concept testing – Surveys to judge the success of a new product before its introduction to the market
  • Evaporating Cloud
  • Fifth discipline – 1990 book by Peter Senge
  • Groupthink – Psychological phenomenon that occurs within a group of people
  • Collective intelligence, also known as Group synergy – Group intelligence that emerges from collective efforts
  • Ideas bank – Resource for the posting, exchange, discussion, and polishing of new ideas
  • Language interpretation – Facilitating of oral or sign-language communication between users of different languages
  • Learning organization – Type of company
  • Metaplan – International management consulting firm
  • Operations research – Discipline concerning the application of advanced analytical methods
  • Organization development – Study and implementation of practices, systems, and techniques that affect organizational change
  • Organizational communication – Field of study in communication studies
  • Organizational culture – Customary behaviours in an organization
  • Organizational ethics – field of ethics focusing on organisations
  • Organizational learning – Academic discipline; examines how goal-driven social entities add and create knowledge
  • Rhetoric – Art of persuasion
  • Smart mob – Digital-communication coordinated group
  • Theory of constraints – Management paradigm
  • Think tank – Organization that performs policy research and advocacy
  • Wisdom of crowds – 2004 book by James Surowiecki

Teaching methods and skills
Main article: Education

Awards for acts of genius
  • Nobel Prize – Prizes established by Alfred Nobel in 1895
  • Pulitzer Prize – Award for achievements in journalism, literature, and musical composition within the United States
  • MacArthur Fellows Program – Annual prize by the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation

Organizations
  • Associations pertaining to thought
    • Association for Automated Reasoning – non-profit that seeks to advance the field of automated reasoning
    • Association for Informal Logic and Critical Thinking
    • International Joint Conference on Automated Reasoning – Conferences series on automated reasoning, automated deduction, and related fields
  • High IQ societies – Organization for people with a high IQ score
  • Mind Sports Organisation – companys
  • Think tank – Organization that performs policy research and advocacys

Media

Books
  • Handbook of Automated Reasoning

Periodicals
  • Journal of Automated Reasoning
  • Journal of Formalized Reasoning
  • Positive Thinking Magazine

Television programs
  • Thinkabout (U.S. TV series)

Persons associated with thinking

People notable for their extraordinary ability to think

Scientists in fields that study thought
  • List of cognitive scientists

Scholars of thinking

Awareness and perception
Main articles: Awareness and Perception

Learning and memory
Main articles: Education, Learning, and Memory

See also

Miscellaneous

Thinking

Lists

References
  1. Dictionary.com, "mind": "1. (in a human or other conscious being) the element, part, substance, or process that reasons, thinks, feels, wills, perceives, judges, etc.: the processes of the mind. 2. Psychology. the totality of conscious and unconscious mental processes and activities. 3. intellect or understanding, as distinguished from the faculties of feeling and willing; intelligence."
  2. Google definition, "mind": "The element of a person that enables them to be aware of the world and their experiences, to think, and to feel; the faculty of consciousness."
  3. Tirri, Nokelainen (January 2012). Measuring Multiple Intelligences and Moral Sensitivities in Education. Springer. ISBN 978-94-6091-758-5.
  4. Danko Nikolić (2014). "Practopoiesis: Or how life fosters a mind. arXiv:1402.5332 [q-bio.NC]".
  5. "Definition of: Moral Reasoning". Retrieved 21 July 2011.
  6. "Dictionary Search › proportional reasoning - Quizlet".
  7. "History of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy". National Association of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapists. Archived from the original on November 26, 2010. Retrieved March 8, 2011.
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