Carbon sink

A carbon sink is anything, natural or otherwise, that accumulates and stores some carbon-containing chemical compound for an indefinite period and thereby removes carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere.[1] Globally, the two most important carbon sinks are vegetation and the ocean.[2] Soil is an important carbon storage medium. Much of the organic carbon retained in the soil of agricultural areas has been depleted due to intensive farming. "Blue carbon" designates carbon that is fixed via the ocean ecosystems. Mangroves, salt marshes and seagrasses make up a majority of ocean plant life and store large quantities of carbon.

This diagram of the fast carbon cycle shows the movement of carbon between land, atmosphere, soil and oceans in billions of tons of carbon per year. Yellow numbers are natural fluxes, red are human contributions in billions of tons of carbon per year. White numbers indicate stored carbon.

Many efforts are being made to enhance natural carbon sinks, mainly soils and forests. In addition, a range of artificial sequestration initiatives are underway such as changed building construction materials, carbon capture and storage and geological sequestration.[3][4]

General

Increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide means increase in global temperature. The amount of carbon dioxide varies naturally in a dynamic equilibrium with photosynthesis of land plants. The natural sinks are:

  • Soil is a carbon store and active carbon sink.[5]
  • Photosynthesis by terrestrial plants with grass and trees allows them to serve as carbon sinks during growing seasons.
  • Absorption of carbon dioxide by the oceans via solubility and biological pumps

While the creation of artificial sinks has been discussed, no major artificial systems remove carbon from the atmosphere on a material scale yet.[6]

Carbon sources include the combustion of fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, and oil) by humans for energy and transportation.[7]

Public awareness of the significance of CO2 sinks has grown since passage of the 1997 Kyoto Protocol, which promotes their use as a form of carbon offset.[8] There are also different strategies used to enhance this process.

Types of sinks in the environment
Part of a series on the
Carbon cycle
By regions
  • Terrestrial
  • Marine
  • Atmospheric
  • Deep carbon
  • Soil
  • Permafrost
  • Boreal forest
  • Geochemistry
Carbon dioxide
Forms of carbon
  • Total carbon (TC)
  • Total organic carbon (TOC)
  • Total inorganic carbon (TIC)
  • Dissolved organic carbon (DOC)
  • Dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC)
  • Particulate organic carbon (POC)
  • Particulate inorganic carbon (PIC)
  • Black carbon
  • Blue carbon
  • Kerogen
Metabolic pathways
  • Calvin cycle
  • Reverse Krebs cycle
  • Carbon fixation
Carbon respiration
  • Ecosystem respiration
  • Net ecosystem production
  • Photorespiration
  • Soil respiration
Carbon pumps
  • Biological pump
    • Martin curve
  • Solubility pump
  • Lipid pump
  • Marine snow
  • Microbial loop
  • Viral shunt
  • Jelly pump
  • Whale pump
  • Continental shelf pump
Carbon sequestration
  • Biosequestration
  • Carbon sink
  • Soil carbon storage
  • Marine sediment
    • pelagic sediment
Methane
  • Atmospheric methane
  • Methanogenesis
  • Methane emissions
    • Arctic
    • Wetland
  • Aerobic production
  • Clathrate gun hypothesis
  • Carbon dioxide clathrate
Biogeochemical
  • Marine cycles
  • Nutrient cycle
  • Carbonate–silicate cycle
  • Carbonate compensation depth
  • Great Calcite Belt
  • Redfield ratio
Other
  • Climate reconstruction proxies
  • Carbon-to-nitrogen ratio
  • Deep biosphere
  • Deep Carbon Observatory
  • Global Carbon Project
  • Carbon capture and storage
  • Carbon cycle re-balancing
  • Territorialisation of carbon governance
  • Total Carbon Column Observing Network
  • C4MIP
  • CO2SYS
  •  Category

Soils

Soils represent a short to long-term carbon storage medium, and contain more carbon than all terrestrial vegetation and the atmosphere combined.[9][10][11] Plant litter and other biomass including charcoal accumulates as organic matter in soils, and is degraded by chemical weathering and biological degradation. More recalcitrant organic carbon polymers such as cellulose, hemi-cellulose, lignin, aliphatic compounds, waxes and terpenoids are collectively retained as humus.[12] Organic matter tends to accumulate in litter and soils of colder regions such as the boreal forests of North America and the Taiga of Russia. Leaf litter and humus are rapidly oxidized and poorly retained in sub-tropical and tropical climate conditions due to high temperatures and extensive leaching by rainfall. Areas where shifting cultivation or slash and burn agriculture are practiced are generally only fertile for two to three years before they are abandoned. These tropical jungles are similar to coral reefs in that they are highly efficient at conserving and circulating necessary nutrients, which explains their lushness in a nutrient desert.[13] Much organic carbon retained in many agricultural areas worldwide has been severely depleted due to intensive farming practices.[14]

Grasslands contribute to soil organic matter, stored mainly in their extensive fibrous root mats. Due in part to the climatic conditions of these regions (e.g. cooler temperatures and semi-arid to arid conditions), these soils can accumulate significant quantities of organic matter. This can vary based on rainfall, the length of the winter season, and the frequency of naturally occurring lightning-induced grass-fires. While these fires release carbon dioxide, they improve the quality of the grasslands overall, in turn increasing the amount of carbon retained in the humic material. They also deposit carbon directly to the soil in the form of Biochar that does not significantly degrade back to carbon dioxide.[15]

Forest fires release absorbed carbon back into the atmosphere,[16] as does deforestation due to rapidly increased oxidation of soil organic matter.[17]

Organic matter in peat bogs undergoes slow anaerobic decomposition below the surface. This process is slow enough that in many cases the bog grows rapidly and fixes more carbon from the atmosphere than is released. Over time, the peat grows deeper. Peat bogs hold approximately one-quarter of the carbon stored in land plants and soils.[18]

Under some conditions, forests and peat bogs may become sources of CO2, such as when a forest is flooded by the construction of a hydroelectric dam. Unless the forests and peat are harvested before flooding, the rotting vegetation is a source of CO2 and methane comparable in magnitude to the amount of carbon released by a fossil-fuel powered plant of equivalent power.[19]

Regenerative agriculture

Current agricultural practices lead to carbon loss from soils. It has been suggested that improved farming practices could improve the capacity of the soil carbon sponge to hold carbon and water. Present worldwide practises of overgrazing are substantially reducing many grasslands' performance as soil carbon sponges.[20] The Rodale Institute says that regenerative agriculture, if practiced on the planet's tillable land of 15 million km2 (3.6 billion acres), could sequester up to 40% of current CO2 emissions.[21] They claim that agricultural carbon sequestration has the potential to mitigate global warming. When using biologically based regenerative practices, this dramatic benefit can be accomplished with no decrease in yields or farmer profits.[22] Organically managed soils can convert carbon dioxide from a greenhouse gas into a food-producing asset.[14]

In 2006, U.S. carbon dioxide emissions, largely from fossil fuel combustion, were estimated at nearly 5.9 billion tonnes (6.5 billion short tons).[23] If a 220 tonnes per square kilometre (2,000 lb/acre) per year sequestration rate was achieved on all 1.76 million km2 (434 million acres) of cropland in the United States, nearly 1.5 billion t (1.6 billion short tons) of carbon dioxide would be sequestered per year, mitigating close to one quarter of the country's total fossil fuel emissions.[14]

Riverine transport
How carbon moves from inland waters to the ocean
Carbon dioxide exchange, photosynthetic production and respiration of terrestrial vegetation, rock weathering, and sedimentation occur in terrestrial ecosystems. Carbon transports to the ocean through the land-river-estuary continuum in the form of organic carbon and inorganic carbon. Carbon exchange at the air-water interface, transportation, transformation and sedimentation occur in oceanic ecosystems.[24]

Terrestrial and marine ecosystems are chiefly connected through riverine transport, which acts as the main channel through which erosive terrestrially derived substances enter into oceanic systems. Material and energy exchanges between the terrestrial biosphere and the lithosphere as well as organic carbon fixation and oxidation processes together regulate ecosystem carbon and dioxygen (O2) pools.[24]

Riverine transport, being the main connective channel of these pools, will act to transport net primary productivity (primarily in the form of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and particulate organic carbon (POC)) from terrestrial to oceanic systems.[25] During transport, part of DOC will rapidly return to the atmosphere through redox reactions, causing "carbon degassing" to occur between land-atmosphere storage layers.[26][27] The remaining DOC and dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) are also exported to the ocean.[28][29][30] Currently (2015) inorganic and organic carbon export fluxes from global rivers to the ocean amount to 0.50–0.70 Pg C y−1 and 0.15–0.35 Pg C y−1 respectively.[29] On the other hand, POC can remain buried in sediment over an extensive period, and the annual global terrestrial to oceanic POC flux has been estimated at 0.20 (+0.13,-0.07) Gg C y−1.[31][24]

Oceans
This section is an excerpt from Blue carbon.[edit]
Global distribution of blue carbon (rooted vegetation in the coastal zone): tidal marshes, mangroves and seagrasses.[32]

Blue carbon is a term used in the climate change mitigation context that refers to "biologically driven carbon fluxes and storage in marine systems that are amenable to management."[33]: 2220  Most commonly, it refers to the role that tidal marshes, mangroves and seagrasses can play in carbon sequestration.[33]: 2220  Such ecosystems can contribute to climate change mitigation and also to ecosystem-based adaptation. However, when coastal blue carbon ecosystems are degraded or lost they release carbon back to the atmosphere.[33]: 2220 

Blue carbon management methods can be grouped into ocean-based biological carbon dioxide removal (CDR) methods.[34]: 764  They are a type of biologic carbon sequestration.

There is increasing interest in developing blue carbon potential.[35] Research is ongoing. In some cases it has been found that these types of ecosystems remove far more carbon per area than terrestrial forests. However, the long-term effectiveness of blue carbon as a carbon dioxide removal solution remains contested.[36][35][37]

Enhancing natural carbon sinks
Main article: Carbon sequestration

Purpose in the context of climate change
This section is an excerpt from Climate change mitigation § Preserving and enhancing carbon sinks.[edit]
About 58% of CO2 emissions have been absorbed by carbon sinks, including plant growth, soil uptake, and ocean uptake (2020 Global Carbon Budget).
World protected area map with total percentage of each country under protection, where countries in lighter colors have more protected land

To reduce pressures on ecosystems and enhance their carbon sequestration capabilities, changes are necessary in agriculture and forestry,[38] such as preventing deforestation and restoring natural ecosystems by reforestation.[39]: 266  Scenarios that limit global warming to 1.5 °C typically project the large-scale use of carbon dioxide removal methods over the 21st century.[40]: 1068 [41]: 17  There are concerns though about over-reliance on these technologies, and environmental impacts.[41]: 17 [42]: 34  Nonetheless, the mitigation potential of ecosystem restoration and reduced conversion are among the mitigation tools that can yield the most emissions reductions before 2030.[43]: 43 

Land-based mitigation options are referred to as "AFOLU mitigation options" in the 2022 IPCC report on mitigation. The abbreviation stands for "agriculture, forestry and other land use"[43]: 37  The report described the economic mitigation potential from relevant activities around forests and ecosystems as follows: "the conservation, improved management, and restoration of forests and other ecosystems (coastal wetlands, peatlands, savannas and grasslands)". A high mitigation potential is found for reducing deforestation in tropical regions. The economic potential of these activities has been estimated to be 4.2 to 7.4 Giga tons of CO2 equivalents per year.[43]: 37 

Soils

Since the 1850s, a large proportion of the world's grasslands have been tilled and converted to croplands, allowing the rapid oxidation of large quantities of soil organic carbon. However, in the United States in 2004 (the most recent year for which EPA statistics are available), agricultural soils including pasture land sequestered 0.8% (46 megatonne)[44] as much carbon as was released in the United States by the combustion of fossil fuels (5,988 megatonne).[45] The annual amount of this sequestration has been gradually increasing since 1998.[46][44]

Methods that significantly enhance carbon sequestration in soil include no-till farming, residue mulching, cover cropping, and crop rotation, all of which are more widely used in organic farming than in conventional farming.[47][48] Because only 5% of US farmland currently uses no-till and residue mulching, there is a large potential for carbon sequestration.[49] Conversion to pastureland, particularly with good management of grazing, can sequester even more carbon in the soil.

Terra preta, an anthropogenic, high-carbon soil, is also being investigated as a sequestration mechanism. By pyrolysing biomass, about half of its carbon can be reduced to charcoal, which can persist in the soil for centuries, and makes a useful soil amendment, especially in tropical soils (biochar or agrichar).[50][51]

"For most of human history, permafrost has been Earth's largest terrestrial carbon sink, trapping plant and animal material in its frozen layers for centuries. It currently stores about 1,600 billion tonnes of carbon—more than twice the amount in the atmosphere today. But thanks to rising temperatures, permafrost is fracturing and disappearing".[52] Sergey Zimov has proposed to restore and protect this major carbon sequestration mechanism via restoration of grassland and large arctic mammalian herbivores.[53]

Forests

Forests can be carbon stores,[54][55][56] and they are carbon dioxide sinks when they are increasing in density or area. In Canada's boreal forests as much as 80% of the total carbon is stored in the soils as dead organic matter.[57] A 40-year study of African, Asian, and South American tropical forests by the University of Leeds showed that tropical forests absorb about 18% of all carbon dioxide added by fossil fuels. For the last three decades, the amount of carbon absorbed by the world's intact tropical forests has fallen, according to a study published in 2020 in the journal Nature.

Proportion of carbon stock in forest carbon pools, 2020[58]

The total carbon stock in forests decreased from 668 gigatonnes in 1990 to 662 gigatonnes in 2020.[59] However, another study finds that the leaf area index has increased globally since 1981, which was responsible for 12.4% of the accumulated terrestrial carbon sink from 1981 to 2016. The CO2 fertilization effect, on the other hand, was responsible for 47% of the sink, while climate change reduced the sink by 28.6%.[60]

In 2019 they took up a third less carbon than they did in the 1990s, due to higher temperatures, droughts and deforestation. The typical tropical forest may become a carbon source by the 2060s.[61] Truly mature tropical forests, by definition, grow rapidly, with each tree producing at least 10 new trees each year. Based on studies by FAO and UNEP, it has been estimated that Asian forests absorb about 5 tonnes of carbon dioxide per hectare each year. The global cooling effect of carbon sequestration by forests is partially counterbalanced in that reforestation can decrease the reflection of sunlight (albedo). Mid-to-high-latitude forests have a much lower albedo during snow seasons than flat ground, thus contributing to warming. Modeling that compares the effects of albedo differences between forests and grasslands suggests that expanding the land area of forests in temperate zones offers only a temporary cooling benefit.[62][63][64][65]

In the United States in 2004 (the most recent year for which EPA statistics[66] are available), forests sequestered 10.6% (637 megatonnes)[44] of the carbon dioxide released in the United States by the combustion of fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas; 5,657 megatonnes[45]). Urban trees sequestered another 1.5% (88 megatonnes).[44] To further reduce U.S. carbon dioxide emissions by 7%, as stipulated by the Kyoto Protocol, would require the planting of "an area the size of Texas [8% of the area of Brazil] every 30 years".[67] Carbon offset programs are planting millions of fast-growing trees per year to reforest tropical lands, for as little as $0.10 per tree; over their typical 40-year lifetime, one million of these trees will fix 1 a million tons of carbon dioxide.[68][69] In Canada, reducing timber harvesting would have very little impact on carbon dioxide emissions because of the combination of harvest and stored carbon in manufactured wood products along with the regrowth of the harvested forests. Additionally, the amount of carbon released from harvesting is small compared to the amount of carbon lost each year to forest fires and other natural disturbances.[57]

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change concluded that "a sustainable forest management strategy aimed at maintaining or increasing forest carbon stocks, while producing an annual sustained yield of timber fibre or energy from the forest, will generate the largest sustained mitigation benefit".[70] Sustainable management practices keep forests growing at a higher rate over a potentially longer period of time, thus providing net sequestration benefits in addition to those of unmanaged forests.[71]

Life expectancy of forests varies throughout the world, influenced by tree species, site conditions and natural disturbance patterns. In some forests, carbon may be stored for centuries, while in other forests, carbon is released with frequent stand replacing fires. Forests that are harvested prior to stand replacing events allow for the retention of carbon in manufactured forest products such as lumber.[72] However, only a portion of the carbon removed from logged forests ends up as durable goods and buildings. The remainder ends up as sawmill by-products such as pulp, paper and pallets, which often end with incineration (resulting in carbon release into the atmosphere) at the end of their lifecycle. For instance, of the 1,692 megatonnes of carbon harvested from forests in Oregon and Washington from 1900 to 1992, only 23% is in long-term storage in forest products.[73]

Oceans
Main article: Carbon sequestration § Sequestration techniques in oceans

To enhance carbon sequestration processes in oceans the following technologies have been proposed but none have achieved large scale application so far: Seaweed farming, ocean fertilisation, artificial upwelling, basalt storage, mineralization and deep sea sediments, adding bases to neutralize acids. The idea of direct deep-sea carbon dioxide injection has been abandoned.[74]

Cumulative contributions to the global carbon budget since 1850 illustrate how source and sink components have been out of balance, causing a nearly 50% rise in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration.[75]

One study in 2020 found that 32 tracked Brazilian non-Amazon seasonal tropical forests declined from a carbon sink to a carbon source in 2013 and concludes that "policies are needed to mitigate the emission of greenhouse gases and to restore and protect tropical seasonal forests".[76][77]

The IPCC has noted that oceans and vegetation will progressively absorb a smaller fraction of CO2 emissions and, in return, create a larger absorption shortcoming.[78]

An emerging trend is the use of conservative or regenerative agriculture. According to Project Drawdown, regenerative agriculture could sink 9.43 to 13.4 gigatons of CO2 between 2020 and 2050. This will be a huge contribution to sink performance.[79]


Sources

 This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO (license statement/permission). Text taken from Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 Key findings​, FAO, FAO. To learn how to add open license text to Wikipedia articles, please see this how-to page. For information on reusing text from Wikipedia, please see the terms of use.

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