Agriculture in Turkey

Agriculture is an important sector of Turkey's economy, and the country is one of the world's top ten agricultural producers.[3] Wheat, sugar beet, milk, poultry, cotton, vegetables and fruit are major crops;[4] and Turkey is the world's largest grower of hazelnuts, apricots,[4] and oregano.

For wood, see Forest in Turkey. For food, see Turkish cuisine.
Turkey is the world's largest producer of apricots[1]
and hazelnuts[2]
Economy of Turkey
Emblem of Turkey
Economic history of Turkey
Money
Stock exchange
Major projects
Related topics
flag Turkey portal

Half of Turkey's land is agricultural,[4] and farming employed 16% of the workforce in 2022,[5] and provided 10% of exports, and 7% of GDP in 2020.[6] There are just under half a million farmers as of 2022.[7][8]

Despite being a major food producer, Turkey is a net wheat importer, much from Russia and Ukraine.[9] Turkey is the EU's fourth largest non-EU vegetable supplier and the seventh largest fruit supplier. The European Commission had already started the formal process for extending the Customs Union Agreement to agricultural products,[10][11] before European Union–Turkey relations deteriorated and efforts to extend and modernize the Customs Union Agreement came to a halt in 2018.[12][13]

Turkish agriculture emits greenhouse gases. According to the World Bank, the sector should adapt more to climate change in Turkey and make technical improvements.[7] 14% of food was lost during agricultural processing in 2016, and 23% was trashed by consumers before eating and 5% as leftovers.[14]

It is the responsibility of the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry. Almost all the seeds used in Turkey are produced domestically.[15]

History
Ancient water distribution channel in Amasya
Warpalawas, King of Tuwana and Tarhunza, worshipping Tarḫunna the weather god of the Hittites, who holds ears of wheat in one hand and bunches of grapes in the other
See also: Fertile Crescent § Early domestications, Economic history of the Ottoman Empire § Agriculture, and History of wine § Ancient Thrace

The Anatolian hunter gatherers began farming around 8300 BC,[16] at places such as Çayönü. Cows, sheep and goats may have been domesticated first in southern Turkey.[17] These farmers moved into Thrace (now European Turkey) around 7000 BC. Later in Thrace there was strip farming.[18]

Historically, Turkey's farmers have been fairly fragmented.[19] Atatürk, who founded the republic in the early 20th century, said that the foundation of the economy was agriculture.[20] But sometimes Atatürk's reforms were controversial. Governments initiated many projects, such as the Southeastern Anatolia Project.[21]

From 1880 to 1950 growth averaged about 1% a year, in line with the increased population having new land.[22] Then growth accelarated as more land could be cultivated because there were many more machines, such as tractors - for example due to the Marshall Plan.[22] Like many other countries Turkey industrialized and urbanized, and by the end of the 20th century 35% of employment and 13% of GDP was from agriculture.[22]

Soils

Soil surveys have been done at least since the 1950s,[23] and the ministry published a map in 1954.[24] The Turkish Foundation for Combating Soil Erosion is an NGO as is the Soil Science Society of Turkey.[25]

Crops

Most cultivated land is for grain.[26] In 2022 70 million tonnes of cereals and other crops were produced, 32 million tonnes of vegetables, and 27 million tonnes fruit beverages and spice crops,[27] and the country was self-sufficient in rapeseed, dry beans, potatoes and sugar beet and almost all fruits and vegetables.[28]

Cereals
White stork feeding in a rice field in the Göksu Delta

In 2021 the country was almost self-sufficient in cereals,[29] and the largest exports in 2022 were to Iraq, the US and Syria.[30] About 20 million tonnes a year of wheat are grown but less than half that each barley and corn.[31] Most wheat is winter wheat.[32] Wheat yields average 2 and a half tonnes a hectare,[33] and climate change affects both wheat productivity and where it is grown.[34] Barley is not usually irrigated so yield depends on rainfall.[32] Drought can be a problem for both winter wheat and winter barley.[35] Nearly 85% of corn is used to make animal feed.[32] Rice is planted April/May and harvested Sept/Oct.[32]

Oilseeds
Sunflower field in Adana Province

Almost half of the country's sunflower seeds are grown in Thrace. Soybeans are used as a rotation crop and to feed fish and chickens. Sunflower oil is more consumed than olive oil as it is cheaper.[36]

Vegetables and fruit

Citrus fruits are grown mainly in Mediterranean and Aegean regions.[37] Many tomatoes are exported.[38] In 2022 half of children ate fruit every day, and a third ate vegetables every day.[39] Most exports are to the EU.[40] Placing fruit and vegetables outside shops attracts customers.[41] In 2022 a lawsuit was started claiming that the ban on vegan cheese was unconstitutional.[42]

Avocado cultivation in Turkey has shown significant improvement in recent years.[43] In addition, banana cultivation in the Mediterranean region of Turkey has an important potential.[44]

Greenhouses have a competitive advantage over EU ones due to lower costs.[45] In 2022 Turkey had a third of the world's greenhouses heated by geothermal energy.[46] Geothermal can also be used to dry fruit.[47] Tropical fruit such as mangos can be grown in greenhouses.[48] Hydroponics may be done in these geothermal greenhouses.[49]

Grapes
See also: Turkish wine

Turkey's total grape production is about 4 million tonnes a year[50] ranking sixth in the world.[51] Turkey has the fifth largest area of vineyard.[52] Raisins are exported to the EU and UK.[53]

About 3% of the harvest is used for wine, but advertising and internet sales are banned.[52] The spirit rakı is mainly distilled from grapes.[51]

Olives
Egyptian Campion under olive trees in Sarıçam

There are almost 200 million olive trees[54] and Turkey produces about 200 thousand tonnes of olive oil a year,[55] that is an average of 1 kg per tree per year. Edremit (Ayvalık) is the main variety in northern Turkey and Memecik in the south. Gemlik is a black table olive and many other varieties are grown.[56]

Tea
This section is an excerpt from Tea in Turkey § Domestic production.[edit]
Tea harvest

Since the mid-20th century most of the tea produced in Turkey has been Rize tea, a terroir from Rize Province on the Eastern Black Sea coast.[57] Rize Province has a mild climate with high precipitation and fertile soil.[57]

In 2019 Turkey produced 1.45 million tonnes of tea (4% of the world's tea), and was one of the largest tea markets in the world,[58] with 1.26 million tonnes being consumed in Turkey, and the rest being exported.[57] Turks drink the most tea per person at 3.5kg per capita, or almost four glasses a day.[59] Turkey has high import tariffs on tea, roughly 145%, which helps maintain the domestic market for locally produced teas.[60]

Herbs medicines and spices
opium poppies

There are about a thousand species, of which almost half are exported, with oregano, bay leaves, sage, aniseed and cumin being the top export earners. But much aniseed is used in the country to flavour rakı.[61] Turkey produces most of the world's oregano.[62] Garlic is grown.[63]

Nuts
Pistachios in Midyat District

Around 200 thousand tonnes of pistachios are produced annually but yields vary a lot between on and off years. NGO TEMA has been training pistachio farmers. About 1.5 kg of pistachios are eaten per person per year, some packaged and some used in desserts such as baklava.[64]

The ministry is encouraging planting more almond and commercial walnut trees as national supply does not meet domestic demand.[64]

About 70% of the world's hazelnuts are produced in Turkey. Ferrero, the Italian producer of Nutella spread, buys the most.[64]

Tobacco

Tobacco is grown[65] and cigarette factories use 11% local tobacco as of 2023.[66] Traditionally oriental tobacco was grown but nowadays cig manufacturers prefer Virginia, which requires irrigation.[67] Smoking in Turkey is a major cause of poor health in Turkey: about a quarter of adults smoke every day.[68] Often locally grown tobacco is rolled illegally to avoid tax.[66] Rolling machines can easily be bought.[69] Also there is illegal waterpipe tobacco.[70]

Manufacture and import of ecigs (which are less dangerous) is banned,[71] so only the combustible cigs with deadly[72] smoke are made and sold legally.[73]

Livestock

Almost 75% of red meat was from cows and under 20% from sheep in 2021.[74] Sheep meat is slightly more expensive than beef. A lot of sheep and goat meat is exported to Iraq. Over 20 million tonnes of milk is produced each year.[75] Et ve Süt Kurumu is the meat and milk board which regulates the meat market.

The main forage crops are alfalfa, silage corn, oats, vetch, and sainfoin.[76] Animal feed manufacture depends on imports and more cattle feed is produced than chicken feed.[32] Livestock are affected by foot and mouth disease.[77] Since at least 1990 enteric fermentation has been the largest source of agricultural greenhouse gas followed by agricultural soils.[78]: 38 

Cattle
Chart showing the top sources of greenhouse gases are, in order: coal-fired electricity, road transport, home fuel, cement, cattle and gas-fired electricity
Cattle (bottom left) emit a similar amount of greenhouse gas to gas fired power stations.
See also: Greenhouse gas emissions by Turkey § Agriculture and fishing

In 2022 there were 17 million cattle[79] of which about 70% were dairy.[75] Average per person per year beef consumption is 15 kilograms (33 lb).[75] Native cattle breeds such as Anatolian Black cattle are low yielding but hardy.[80] About 80% of cattle farm expenditure is on feed. In 2023 inflation was a problem for cattle farmers as feed prices were increasing faster than milk and beef prices. Most imports are feeder cattle for beef.[75] Cattle are a large source of the greenhouse gases methane and nitrous oxide. Cattle emit around half of the GHG from agriculture.[81]: 240, 257  - (Total 72 Mt: 27 Mt enteric fermentation + 61% of 9 Mt manure management = 32 Mt + unknown share of agricultural soils). Traditionally transhumance was practiced. The Agriculture Ministry is trying to get more biogas produced from cattle waste.[82]

Sheep, goats and buffalo
Goatherd and his Kangal dog near Kozan

Turkey is a major sheep producer. In 2022 there were 45 million sheep,[79] including 30 million ewes (mostly of the fat-tailed type) and the average flock size was 85. A quarter of meat is from sheep, with 390 thousand tonnes a year and an average 4.2 kilograms (9.3 lb) is consumed per person per year. The highest sheep meat consumption is during Eid Al Adha. Turkish sheep meat is exported to Iraq, Syria and Gulf countries. Cheese is made from sheep milk.[83] Sheep and goats are mostly fed on pasture.[75] In 2022 there were 12 million goats and 170 thousand buffalo.[79]

Poultry

Over a million tonnes of meat and over 2 million tonnes of eggs are produced a year.[84]

Beekeeping

Over a hundred thousand tonnes of honey are produced annually.[85]

Fish farms
This section is an excerpt from Fishing in Turkey § Aquaculture.[edit]
Aquaculture, which started in the 1970s, has been supported by the government since 2003. Sea bass and sea bream are farmed, and mostly trout in inland waters.[86] Aquaculture overtook fishing in 2020, with Muğla, İzmir and Elazığ being the top provinces. In 2021 US$1.2 billion worth of farmed fish were exported.[87]

Employment
Black Sea tea farming in 1990
Farmer in Hacımirza

As of 2022 agricultural statistics need improvement according to the EU.[88] In 2022 there were over 2 million people on the Agriculture Ministry's Farmer Registration System,[89] but only half a million were farmers[90] and known to the Social Security Institution.[91] Many farms are small[92] and family farms are common, with many women working informally.[93] It has been claimed that with the influx of Syrian refugees seasonal agricultural work became more precarious, especially for women and children.[94][95] Kurdish seasonal workers are also poor.[96] The International Labour Organization is helping to stop child labour.[97] The UN Food and Agriculture Organization has various projects, prioritising “Food and Nutrition Security and Food Safety”, “Sustainable use of natural resources and raising awareness on climate change impacts” and “Institutional Capacity of Public and Private Sectors".[98]

In 2022 the average daily wage of a seasonal worker was 238 lira and the average monthly wage of a permanent worker was 6547 lira.[99]

Stubble burning
See also: Wildfires in Turkey

Stubble burning is illegal in Turkey, but farmers continue the practice illicitly.[100]

Research and environment

Seeds and bulbs are stored long term.[101] The World Bank has a project to improve sustainable agriculture in some regions.[102] In the first 2 decades of the 21st century farming is thought not to have been sustainable.[103] The EU said in 2022 that food safety, veterinary and phytosanitary policy should be improved.[104]

There are about 2 million tractors and it has been suggested that electric tractors should be subsidized.[105] However, there is only one electric tractor manufacturer and they are not yet mass-produced.[106]

Trade and economics

Despite being a major food producer, Turkey is a net wheat importer. In 2021, Turkey received 65 percent of all imported wheat from Russia and more than 13 percent from Ukraine.[9] Over 50 billion dollars revenue a year is from agriculture.[107] European and the Middle East are large export markets and some food is processed before export.[3] In 2020 the country receiving the most exports was Iraq,[108] and that sending the most food to Turkey was Russia.[109] Turkey is the world's largest exporter of wheat flour and some other countries's flour producers say it is dumping with unfair subsidies.[110] The EU intends to support rural development with €430 million during 2021–2027.[111] Total Factor Productivity is estimated to have decreased by 2% annually on average from 2005 to 2016.[112] According to the International Fund for Agricultural Development “investment is needed to help farmers update production techniques, boost productivity and cope with climate change” in the uplands.[3]

Gübretaş and Hektaş are large fertiliser companies. Despite subsidies farmer's fuel and fertilizer costs increased a lot in 21/22 due to international price rises and the fall in the lira.[32] State enterprises market some products.[113] Over a billion dollars of damage to agriculture infrastructure and storage was done by the 2023 earthquake.[114]

The Agricultural Insurance Pool(Turkish) is linked to the government and provides agricultural insurance. As of April 2023 there are no import taxes on wheat, barley, maize, rye, oats, pulses and sorghum.[115] But import tariffs average over 40% so it would be hard to add agriculture to the EU customs union.[116]

Some academics say that high food price inflation is due to macroeconomic instability.[117] Food price rises such as onion and potato prices can be politically sensitive.[117] TÜSİAD say that Turkey needs a good climate change adaptation strategy to cope with effects such as drought.[117]

Subsidies
Turkish Grain Board silos in Izmir

In 2019-21 about 20% of gross farm income was government support, mostly market price support, particularly for potatoes, wheat, sunflower seed and beef.[113] 2021 support for 21 strategic crops in some places was nearly 25b lira (1.8b dollars).[32] Diesel and fertilizer payments were made, which may make the goal of net zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2053 more difficult.[113]

Farmers are not allowed to export wheat.[118] The state's Turkish Grain Board(Turkish) sometimes pays more for foreign than Turkish wheat and farmers complain[118] that foreign wheat is sold at a discount: this is done so bread is cheaper as Turks eat so much bread.[32] TMO objective is to stabilize grain prices.[32] Cotton growing is subsidized.[119] Oilseeds are subsidized.[36] There is some support for organic farming.[120]

Irrigation
See also: Climate change in Turkey § Agriculture
The Atatürk Dam is the largest of the 22 dams in the Southeastern Anatolia Project, which includes the irrigation of 1.82 million hectares of land.

Solar power is occasionally used to pump water in order to combat drought,[121] which can reduce planting of crops such as corn and potatoes.[122] Water pricing is being considered.[113]

Farmers mostly use surface irrigation, which may quickly deplete groundwater and can runoff the farm. As of 2023 73% of Turkey's water supply is used for irrigation, and it has been estimated that this is double what it would be if all farmers used drip irrigation.[123]

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