Anti-Korean sentiment

Korea and China have historically maintained complicated ties.[2][3] When Korea was annexed by Imperial Japan in 1910, it fell under Japanese influence. In China it is believed that some ethnic Koreans served in the Imperial Japanese Army whose invasion of China launched the Second Sino-Japanese War in July 1937.[4] Adding to this sentiment is the allegation that some Koreans reportedly operated the Burma-Siam Death Railway.[5][6] The Chinese referred to Koreans using the slur er guizi (Chinese: 二鬼子; pinyin: èr guǐzi).[7]

At the end of World War II, North Korea, which was aligned with the Soviet bloc, became an ally of the People's Republic of China, while the PRC and the Republic of Korea did not recognize each other. During the Korean War, when China was engaged in war with South Korea and its United Nations allies, propaganda was used to indoctrinate people into hating South Korea, which was called a "puppet state" of the United States by the PRC government of the time.[8]

From 1992 onward, after South Korea's normalization of relations with China, the relationship between the two nations gradually improved. From 2000 onward, Korean popular culture became popular within China.

A February 2021 survey conducted by scholars from Rice University, the University of British Columbia, and the Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy had 43% of Chinese respondents expressing an unfavourable view of South Korea, compared to 49% expressing a favourable view.[9]

Anti-Korean sentiment in Japan existed since well before the pre-modern era and has continued into the present.[10] Several notable sources of controversy include the 1923 mass murder of Koreans after the Kanto Earthquake, the 1910–1945 Japanese colonization of Korea, the comfort women issue, the Liancourt Rocks dispute, and alleged historical revisionism around all of these topics. Even after the end of WWII, Koreans in Japan experienced intentional systemic discrimination, and the pro-North Korean organization Chongryon continues to draw controversy.[11][12]

In the modern era, mutual sentiment has oscillated over time based on geopolitical events, although some scholars argue mutual sentiments have gradually improved.[13][14][15][16] A September 2022 survey of around 2,000 respondents across Japan and Korea by the East Asia Institute and Genron NPO found that 30.4% of Japanese respondents viewed South Korea positively and 52.8% viewed it negatively. The same survey found that 30.6% of South Koreans viewed Japan positively and 40.3% negatively. Notably, in both countries, there is a correlation between how young the respondents are and how likely they are to view the other country positively. The majority of respondents in both countries approved of having action taken to improve their relationship, especially in response to growing concerns in both countries of a Chinese military threat.[15]

Since the end of World War II, the relationship between both North Korea and South Korea has been hostile. The two nations fought in the Korean War, which ended with an armistice agreement in 1953 without a peace treaty. Both nations claim the entire Korean Peninsula and have competed for sovereignty. Tensions after the war reached their highest point in 1968, due to four major events: a North Korean assassination attempt on South Korean President Park Chung Hee, a failed counter-assassination attempt against Kim Il Sung, the Uljin–Samcheok Landings, and the execution of a 9 year old South Korean boy by North Korean commandoes during the landings.[17] Although the relationship somewhat warmed during the Sunshine Policy of the late 1990s to early 2000s,[18] they have since cooled.[19][20]

In South Korea, hostility toward North Korea is called "anti-North [sentiment]" (반북) and is commonly associated with right-leaning politics.[19][20] According to a 2014 BBC World Service poll, 3% of South Koreans viewed North Korea's influence positively, with 91% expressing a negative view, making South Korea, after Japan, the country with the most negative feelings of North Korea in the world.[21]

Anti-North Korean graffiti near Yeosu, South Korea. The faded text on the warehouse reads "Let's kill Kim Il Sung by ripping him to shreds" ("김일성을 찢어 죽이자"). Kim died in 1994, picture from 2023.

Naval skirmishes frequently occur between the two states, with North Korea targeting South Korean naval bases. The Bombardment of Yeonpyeong was cited by former UN ambassador Bill Richardson to be "the most serious crisis on the Korean peninsula since the 1953 armistice".[22]

As of 2023, there are around 33,000 North Korean defectors in South Korea. They have widely and consistently reported experiencing discrimination.[23][24] Areas of discrimination include but are not limited to employment discrimination, social isolation, and difficulty finding spouses.[23] Some South Koreans even admit to avoiding businesses owned by North Korean defectors.[23]

According to a 2012 study, North Korean men who attempt to marry South Korean women experience greater pushback than North Korean women marrying South Korean men.[25] A 2015 paper highlighted the tendency of a South Korean variety show, Now On My Way to Meet You, to disproportionately present North Korean women as attractive marriage partners.[25]

The treatment of ethnic Koreans who were born abroad and returned to South Korea has changed over time. In the 1990s, many young people with pro-unification sentiment viewed ethnic Koreans positively, and saw them as "representatives of the authentic Korean nation".[25] However, sentiments subsequently cooled, and South Korean identity came to exclude both North Koreans and foreign-born ethnic Koreans.[25]

Ethnic Koreans who now live in South Korea have widely reported experiencing discrimination from South Koreans. They are reportedly seen as lazy, prone to commit crimes, and dirty.[25] A 2009 study found that while foreign-born ethnic Koreans were preferred over non-Korean workers by employers, ethnic Koreans were "at least as likely to report discrimination".[25]

People with partial Korean heritage have also experienced discrimination in South Korea, although this trend may be diminishing since at latest the late 2000s.[25] In 2009, South Korean schools were prohibited from promoting ideas of ethnic purity and homogeneity, and in 2011 the Korean military amended their oath, replacing the term minjok, meaning "nation", with "citizen".[25]

During the Korean War, the United States fought in alliance with South Korea against North Korea. Since the war, United States' citizens have viewed North Korea in an unfavourable light.

Following North Korea's heavy re-militarization and a series of missile tests, Americans were conditioned to fear a possible attack by a "rogue state" such as North Korea. In United States President George W. Bush's State of the Union Address on January 29, 2002, he described North Korea as a part of the "Axis of evil". Following the development of the nuclear program of North Korea and the 2006 North Korean nuclear test, the United States imposed UN sanctions on North Korea. These economic sanctions are very unlikely to be lifted by the United States due to North Korea's noncompliance with the six-party talk agreements.

From 1988 until 2008, and since November 2017, North Korea has been designated a state sponsor of terrorism for supporting Hamas and Hezbollah against Israel,[26] their role in the murder of Kim Jong-nam, supporting dictator Bashar al-Assad in the Syrian Civil War, close relationships with Iran, and the suspicious death of Otto Warmbier.

The 1992 Los Angeles riots were partially motivated by Anti-Korean sentiment among African Americans,[27] and famously lead to the rise of the phrase "roof Koreans" or "rooftop Koreans".[28][29] A year before the riots, on March 16, 1991, Korean American store owner Soon Ja Du fatally shot 15-year-old African American Latasha Harlins.[27][30] This incident and other tensions became a significant part of the 1992 riots, which were sparked by alleged police brutality towards Rodney King.[28][27][30][29] The protests saw mass ransacking and destruction of Korean American and other Asian-owned stores in the Koreatown, Los Angeles area by groups of African-Americans, as well as armed Korean Americans defending stores from the rooftops of buildings.[31][29][30][28] Both Koreans and African Americans were killed in the riots.[32] Of the $1 billion in damages the city experienced, around half was suffered by Korean business owners.[32]

During the era of the Soviet Union, ethnic Koreans in the Russian Far East were subject to deportations under the national delimitation policy, with the majority of Koreans relocating to Soviet republics in Central Asia.[33]

The deportation was preceded by a typical Soviet scenario of political repression: falsified trials of local party leaders accused of insurrection, accusations of plans of the secession of the Far Eastern Krai, local party purges, and articles in Pravda about the Japanese espionage in the Far East.[34]

The resettlement plans were revived with new vigor in August 1937, ostensibly with the purpose of suppressing "the penetration of the Japanese espionage into the Far Eastern Krai". This time, however, the direction of resettlement was westward, to Soviet Central Asia. From September to October 1937, more than 172,000 Soviet Koreans were deported from the border regions of the Russian Far East to Kazakh SSR and Uzbek SSR (the latter including Karakalpak ASSR).[35][36]

Within Taiwan, some existing animosity towards Koreans amongst Taiwanese may be present as a result of the rivalry between the two states in relation to baseball.[37][38] Disputes between Taiwan and Korea in the international sport competition arose numerous times.

In November 2010, Taiwanese citizens protested against the disqualification of Taekwondo athlete Yang Shu-chun at the 2010 Asian Games after a Korean-Filipino referee[39][40] disqualified a Taiwanese fighter.[41] Images and messages deriding South Korean products and culture were widely shared online. There were reports of restaurants displaying ‘No Koreans’ signs on their doors, and protesters burning the Korean flag or destroying South Korean products.[42]

On 23 August 1992, South Korea's "Nordpolitik" (Northern diplomacy) have made it to establish a diplomatic ties with the People's Republic of China after Soviet Union. This resulted in the change in the diplomatic relationship of South Korea with the Republic of China, since it replaced anti-communist foreign policy with an effort to improve relations with other surrounding countries in the sense of geopolitics, including the People's Republic of China, in order to pressure and appease North Korea that eases the political anxiety and softens military tension in the Korean Peninsula and enables the possibility of a peaceful reunification of Korea. As normalization begun, President Roh transferred diplomatic recognition from the ROC to PRC, and confiscated the property of the ROC embassy, transferring it to the PRC.[43]

According to an official from the Korean trade office in Taipei, sales of Korean products are not very successful in Taiwan because "the Taiwanese felt very betrayed after Korea severed diplomatic ties with Taiwan and reestablished ties with China in 1992, because the people of Taiwan had seen Korea as an ally in the fight against Communism... Now because the two countries have similar export-oriented economies and focus on the same business sectors, the Taiwanese see Korea as a great rival, and think that losing to Korea would be the end of Taiwan."[44]

In June 2012, CEO of Foxconn Terry Gou stated that he had "great esteem for Japanese (businessmen), especially those who are able to disagree with you in person and not stab you in the back, unlike the Gaoli bangzi (a racial slur for Koreans)", sparking controversy.[45]

It has been alleged that South Korean soldiers committed war crimes during the Vietnam War that killed somewhere between 40,000 to 50,000 civilians, which has led to lingering anti-Korean sentiment especially amongst older Vietnamese people.[46] The South Korean government has long denied these charges. However in 2020, alleged Vietnamese survivors of these war crimes, including citizen Nguyen Thi Thanh,[47] filed lawsuits against South Korea.[48] By contrast, Vietnam and North Korea enjoyed a more positive relationship in the Vietnam War.[49]

Allegations of sex trafficking in South Korea of Vietnamese women has also sparked some negative sentiment amongst Vietnamese people.[50]

While the Korean Wave has been mostly enthusiastically accepted among younger women in Vietnam, there has been some pushback from government and the public.[51] Criticisms focused on the perceived femininity of Korean male idols and perceived self-indulgence that went against the spirit of the collectivist Communist culture.[51]

Historically, Korean soldiers were compelled to serve on the side of the Empire of Japan during the Japanese occupation of the Philippines in World War II. This has caused some Filipinos, especially older ones, to associate the Koreans with atrocities committed during the war.[52]

Ethnographic fieldwork done in Sabang from 2003 to 2015 found that the influx of Koreans was viewed negatively by some locals and resident Westerners.[53] South Koreans were also identified in 2007 as the top violator of immigration laws according to the Philippine Bureau of Immigration.[54]

Many Korean social media influencers have been accused of a marketing strategy dubbed pinoy baiting,[55] a practice that many other foreigners are also accused of.[56] The strategy refers to the insincere usage, appropriation, and acknowledgment of Filipino culture by foreigners to pander to a Filipino audience.

Some Filipinos perceive Koreans to be rude and to refuse integration into Filipino culture.[57] Another area of concern was the prohibition of South Korean tourists from doing business with local tourist firms by South Korean tour operators. This would mean that Filipino firms would benefit significantly less from South Korean tourists.

Some Korean media portrayals of Filipinos in movies such as Wandeuki (Punch) and negative treatment of Filipino-born or Filipino-raised celebrities living in South Korea such as politician Jasmine Lee and entertainer Sandara Park, have worsened Filipino views of Koreans.[58] In an interview, Sandara Park stated, "[Filipinos] are really gentle. I feel upset because the Korean media only reports crime [when talking about the Philippines]."[59]

Senator Jinggoy Estrada proposed banning all Korean dramas and movies in the Philippines, and said "My observation is if we continue showing Korean telenovelas, our citizens praise the Koreans while Filipino artists continue losing jobs and money. So sometimes it comes to my mind that we should ban the telenovelas of the foreigners, and the Filipino artists who have great talent in acting are what we should be showing in our own country."[60][61] Estrada clarified that he was only frustrated "that while we are only too eager and willing to celebrate South Korea's entertainment industry, we have sadly allowed our own to deteriorate because of the lack of support from the movie going public."[62][63]

In September 2020, Filipino TikTok star Bella Poarch posted a video of herself dancing, in which Japan's rising sun flag could be seen tattooed on her arm. Koreans swarmed the comments section saying the tattoo was offensive and that she should apologize and get it removed.[64]

Shortly after backlash and criticism from her video, Bella posted a comment of apology on TikTok : "I’m very sorry if my tattoo offends you," she wrote. "I love Korea, please forgive me." Additionally, her caption read, "I would never do anything to hurt anyone." Bella also explained that she got the tattoo back in March 2020 but had it scheduled for removal. She also promised to learn more about the symbol's history and help educate people further on the symbol, but has been unable to remove the tattoo as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Despite the apology, many Korean users continued with hostile comments, attacking Filipinos referring to them as poor, slaves, ugly, and uneducated, as well as making racist remarks. The issue soon spilled over Twitter, sparking an argument on Korea's racist attitudes and the long history between South Korea and the Philippines. Along with #CancelKorea, the hashtags #ApologizeToFilipinos including #CancelRacism and #한국취소 (meaning Cancel Korea, or in Hanja: #韓國取消) also trended with Twitter, with Filipino users airing out their anger at the mockery and insults.[65]

However, the anger was relieved when other Korean netizens apologized on behalf of the racist remarks, spreading the hashtag '미안해요 필리핀 (#SorryToFillipinos)'. From these apologies, some Filipinos suggested to change the hashtag #CancelKorea to #CancelRacism.[66] Some Filipino netizens went out to apologize for any offensive remarks made against the Koreans during the spat, using the hashtag #SorryToKoreans and accepting the apology.[67][68]

In Indonesia, Anti-Korean sentiment emerged in the 2000s. The emergence of anti-Korean sentiment is caused by several factors, such as plastic surgery and atheism in South Korea. Some Indonesians call Koreans "plastic".[69] This stereotype arises because of the popularity of plastic surgery in South Korea.[70] This stereotype has strengthened since the suicide of the former member of Shinee, Jonghyun.[71] In addition, there are assumptions that Korean drama lovers are excessive and people of Korea are always committing adultery.[72][73] It was reported in 2013 that some Bali businesses had put up signs prohibiting Korean customers, due to reports that a number of them flouted regulations during their stay.[74][75]

In 2021, a South Korean man allegedly launched racist attack against Indonesian woman on social media, this sparked anger among Indonesian public and triggered further anti-Korean sentiment in the country.[76] also in that year, A Korean internet personality living in the country named SunnyDahye also under fire by Indonesian people due to her past comments calling Indonesians are "stupid" and she also allegedly pretended to fast during the month of Ramadhan, the live coverage of the 2020 Olympics in garnered ire to some Indonesians after MBC mistakenly setting a picture of the map of Malaysia when the Indonesian contingent arrives at the opening ceremony.

In 2008, it was reported that some South Korean men took sex tourism trips to Mongolia, often as clients of South Korean-run businesses in the country. This was said to spark anti-Korean sentiment and an increased number of assaults on South Korean nationals in the country.[77]

The popularity of the Korean wave in Thailand has led some Thai authorities to cast it as a threat to local culture.[78] Some locals in 2017 reportedly began to perceive Hallyu negatively or as a form of cultural imperialism.[79]

In early 2020, a leading Italian music school banned all East Asian students from attending classes due to coronavirus fear, with South Koreans the largest nationality being affected.[80][81] South Korean students also describe being barred from the building and being mocked by other students because of their origin. In addition, some South Korean residents have reported fear of leaving their homes amid rising incidents of discrimination and mockery, and others considered leaving Italy because they could not "stay in a place that hates us".[82]

Because of the COVID-19 pandemic, South Korean tourists were instructed to avoid public places and remain in isolation in their hotels.[83] The Israeli military announced its intention to quarantine South Korean nationals to a military base.[84] Many of the remaining South Koreans were rejected by hotels and were forced to spend nights at Ben Gurion Airport.[85] An Israeli newspaper subsequently published a Korean complaint that "Israel is Treating [Korean and other Asian] Tourists Like Coronavirus".[86] South Korean Foreign Minister Kang Kyung-wha has described Israel's response as "excessive".[87]

Many Koreans residents in Germany have reported an increase in anti-Korean incidents following the outbreak of COVID-19, and the South Korean embassy has warned its citizens of the increasing hateful climate facing them.[88] As suspicion toward Koreans is growing, locals are also opting to avoid Korean restaurants, some of which have reported a sales decline of 80%.[89]

KLM, the country's flag carrier airline, prohibited only Korean passengers from using their toilets on one of their flights.[90]

In general, there has recently been a spate of anti-Korean incidents in the Netherlands, which have targeted both Korean nationals and Dutch people of Korean descent. These incidents range from vandalism of homes to violent assault to harassment. More than 150 Korean expat respondents in an online survey indicated they had experienced an xenophobic incident.[91][92]

Despite the popularity of South Korean culture in Brazil among young people, as part of the Korean Wave,[93] a certain anti-Korean feeling persisted and some anti-Korean incidents occurred in Brazil.[94] In 2017, the Brazilian television host Raul Gil was accused of racism and xenophobia when making derogatory jokes to Asians and a "slit eye" gesture during a live interview with the K-Pop group K.A.R.D, generating repercussions in the Brazilian press and abroad.[95][96][97] In 2019, a Brazilian couple published several videos on social media making fun of Korean food and language during a trip to South Korea. The case generated harsh criticism on social media.[98]

• Er guizi – literally "second devils", negatively associates Koreans with the Japanese.[99] The term arose during the 1937–1945 Second Sino–Japanese War, and generally referred to all perceived collaborators with the Japanese.[100][101]
• Gaoli bangzi or Han bangzi (Chinese: 韩棒子) – derogatory term used against ethnic Koreans that likens them to hillbillies.[102][103] Gaoli refers to ancient Korea (Goryeo) and Han refers to the native name for Korean people, while bangzi means "club".[104][103]
• Gaoli paocai (simplified Chinese: 高丽泡菜; traditional Chinese: 高麗泡菜; pinyin: gāolì pàocài) – literally "Goryeo kimchi". Used by Taiwanese baseball fans, as a result of their rivalry against South Korea. Variants include 死泡菜 ("dead kimchi").

• Chon (チョン) – vernacular nickname for Koreans, with strongly offensive overtones.[105] Various suggested etymologies exist; one such etymology is that it is an abbreviation of Chōsen (朝鮮), a Japanese term for Korea.[106]
• Chōsenjin (朝鮮人, Chōsenjin) – the term was once considered neutral,[107] especially because it literally means "Joseon person", but became associated with anti-Korean sentiment especially after World War II, as some perceive it as harkening to the Japanese colonial era.[108][109][11]
• Kimchi yarō (キムチ野郎 / キムチ埜郞, Kimuchi yarō) – literally "kimchi bastard". Notably, in 2003, the Mongolian sumo wrestler Asashōryū sparked controversy by calling a Korean journalist this term.[110][111]
• Tokuajin (特亜人 / 特亞人, Tokuajin) – meaning "Tokutei (East) Asian". A derogatory term used against Koreans and Chinese.

• Black-haired foreigner (Korean: 검은 머리 외국인) – used by South Koreans to refer to ethnic Koreans who were either foreign-born or spent significant time abroad.[112][113] It is also used to refer to people with perceived foreign interests.[114]
• Chinese dog (Korean: 짱개) – a slur normally used to refer to Chinese people that is also used towards Chinese-born ethnic Koreans.[115]
• Hell Joseon – used internally in South Korea by South Koreans to criticize the country's difficult socioeconomic situation. The term is seen as being self-deprecating.[116]
• Josen-jing (Korean: 조센징) – used internally in South Korea by South Koreans as a reference to the Japanese slur for Koreans, Chōsenjin.[note 1] It is seen as self-deprecating or even dehumanizing.[109]
• Kimchi-nam and Kimchi-nyeo (Korean: 김치남; 김치녀) – meaning literally "Kimchi male" and "Kimchi female". Used by younger South Koreans to pejoratively refer to perceived stereotypical Korean men or women.[117] It has been also become associated the conflict over feminism in South Korea.[117]
• Ppalgaengi (Korean: 빨갱이) – meaning literally "little red", used similarly to the word "commie" in English. Used in South Korea to pejoratively refer to either North Koreans or any left-leaning person.[118][119]

• Gook – a derogatory term used by occupying US military to refer to native people, mainly Asians.[120] The etymology of this racial slur is shrouded in mystery, disagreement, and controversy. The Oxford English Dictionary admits that its origin is "unknown" but traces its usage through US military deployments in the Philippines, Korea, and Vietnam,[121] while other sources record it during the occupation of Haiti.[122] A widespread urban legend holds that it derives from the Korean term 미국/美國, miguk, meaning "America", which American soldiers interpreted as "me gook", or from other variants involving the word for country, guk.
• Kimchi – derogatory term for Koreans derived from the Korean dish of the same name.[123]

• Retoke Koreano – literally "plastic Korean", referring to South Korea's high rates of plastic surgery.[124]

• Jepang Barat – literally "West Japan", pejoratively recalling Korea under Japanese rule.[125]