Korean Independence Military Groups (1920s-1930s)

Hong Beom-do in 1921

Korea Independence Army Marching Flag

In August 1918, when Japan invaded Primorsky in support of the White Army during the Russian civil war, Hong Beom-do formed a military force, Korea Independence Army (Korean: 대한독립군; Hanja: 大韓獨立軍) centered around the former independence army and Korean people living in Manchuria. When the March 1st Movement took place in 1919, Hong and his soldiers moved to Antuhyun. In 1919, Hong Beom-do (1868 ~ 1943) created relations with Koreans residing in Yeonggae, Primorsky Krai, and Gando (Jiandao).[6][7]

Later, in August 1919, the army crossed the Yalu River and wiped out a Japanese military unit. This was the first domestic military operation to take place in Korea following the March 1st Movement. In October, Hong's forces once again moved into Korea, occupied Ganggye and Manpojin, fighting a fierce battle with the Japanese army in Jaseong county, northern Korea. However, due to difficulties in supplying his weapons and logistics, in the winter of 1919, he went under the Korean National Association in Gando and received financial support. The number of soldiers increased to 600, and combat power was strengthened by equipping 600 military guns, about 30 pistols, and about 200 rounds of ammunition per gun.[6][7]

By March 1920, Hong was allied with the Eastern Ministry of Military Service, led by Choi Jin-dong, who had been stationed in Hoeryong and Jongseong (Wongseong) along the Tuman coast of the Tuman River. The domestic resistance operation of the Korean independence forces provided a boost to the national spirit of Koreans everywhere and prompted further armed resistance struggles in Manchuria. 2,000 Korean independence fighters in the Jilin area attacked the camp of the Japanese army at night, killing 300 people and routing 400 while developing an independence movement while maintaining organic contact with Choi Jin-dong's Military Martial Independence Army and others.[6][7]

By March 1920, the army had moved its base from Antuhyun to Fengwudong, Wang Qinghyun, China and received financial support from the Korean People's Association for a larger domestic resistance operation. Hong also joined forces with the National Liberation Army, which was under the leadership of the Korean People's Association. The military's finances and administration were managed by the Korean Minjok Association and the Korean Independence Army was directed by Hong Beom-do. Around 200 old righteous soldiers and old farmers and laborers from Gando, centering on Hongbeom-do, purchased weapons from various places to train the independence army.[6][7]

In the Battle of Baegunpyeong on the 21st of October, the Battle of Wanlugu, Battle of Cheonsupyung, Battle of Eorangchon on the 22nd, and the Battle of Cheonbosan on the 24th, the enemy lost 1,254 dead and over 2,000 wounded. Among them, the 1st Regiment under Hong Beom-do killed 1,200 enemy soldiers. After that, in fear of retaliation from the Japanese Empire, 600 members of the Korean Independence Army moved to Noryeong under the command of Commander Hong Beom-do and joined the Korean Independence Corps.[6][7]

At the request of the Chinese side, which could not overcome the pressure of Japan, the independence army units located in all parts of South and North Manchuria, especially in North Gando, moved to the direction of Milsan near the Sino-Soviet border to build a new anti-Japanese war base. In December 1920, under the leadership of the Bukrogunjeongseo, the Korean Independence Army, the Korean New People's Association, the Korean National Association headed by Gu Chun-seon, and the Korean National Association in Honchun, the Military Provincial Government Department, Representatives of the Uigunbu, Hyolseongdan, Yadan, and Daehanjeonguigunjeongsa crossed over to the Maritime Province of Noryeong to wage a long-term anti-Japanese war. Decided to prepare, he organized this group in Milsan, the Korea Independence Corps (Korean: 대한독립군단; Hanja: 大韓獨立軍團).[8][9]

Seo Il (徐一) as president, Hong Beom-do (洪範圖) as vice president, Baek Soon (白純 and Kim Ho-ik) as advisors, Choi Jin-dong (崔振東) as foreign minister, Kim Jwa-jin (金佐鎭) as chief of staff, staff Lee Jang-nyeong and Na Joong-so as military advisers, Ji Cheong-cheon as military advisor, Kim Gyu-sik as the 1st Brigade Commander, Park Yeong-hee as the Staff, Anmu as the 2nd Brigade Commander, and Staff Lee Dan-seung (李檀承), 2nd Brigade Cavalry Commander Kang Phillip, company commanders Kim Chang-hwan, Oh Gwang-seon (吳光鮮), and Jo Dong-shik (趙東植) were appointed. There was a brigade as an upper unit under the corps, and under it, 3 battalions, 9 companies, and 27 platoons were organized, and the total strength was about 3,500.[8][9]

In the process of moving to Free City, the units that did not respond to disarmament returned to Manchuria from Iman, Primorsky Krai (now Dalnerechensk Province, Primorsky Krai, Russia). Units that moved to Free City suffered the Heihe Incident (Yiqing) in the process of integration. After the Heihe Incident, the remaining troops in Free City were reorganized into the Koryo Revolutionary Army. Afterwards, the Koryo Revolutionary Army moved to Irkutsk.[8][9]

Efforts to create an independent corps by integrating the units of the Anti-Japanese Independence Army continued. As part of these efforts, a preparatory meeting for the military federation was organized in September 1924. Lee Beom-yoon (李範允) was appointed as the president and Kim Jwa-jin was appointed as the commander-in-chief. Kim Gyu-sik, Choi Jin-dong, Hyeon Cheon-muk, Kang Guk-mo, Nam Sung-geuk, Choi Ho, Park Doo-hee, Yoo Hyeon, Lee Jang-nyeong, etc. was active Centering on Dongnyeong County in Manchuria, it expanded its influence along the Dongji line connecting Subunhe to Harbin.[8][9]

However, at this time, several units of the Independence Army were officially integrated into a single Independence Corps, but in reality, complete integration was not achieved due to poor finances and dispersal of forces.[8][9]

Kim Won-bong

The Heroic Corps (Korean: 의열단; RR: Euiyeoldan; MR: Uiyoldan) was an organization founded in Korea in 1919, during the Japanese colonial period. Its activists believed in revolutionary uprising as well as egalitarianism.

After the March 1st Movement was crushed in 1919, many independence activists moved their bases to foreign countries. However, members of the Heroic Corps thought that those organizations were too moderate and would not contribute to independence in Korea, and instead took a more radical approach by opposing compromising solutions such as culturalism. The Heroic Corps wished for a violent revolution, reflected by the Manifesto of the Korean Revolution (조선혁명선언) by independence activist Shin Chae-ho.[10] The Corps struggled for independence by assassinating high-ranking Japanese officials and committing acts of terrorism against government offices. The Heroic Corps moved their base to Beijing, China and brought members to Shanghai where they had about 70 members in 1924. Kim Gu, Kim Kyu-sik, Kim Chang-suk, and Shin Chae-ho were engaged as advisers and Chiang Kai-shek, President of the Republic of China, supported the Heroic Corps.[11] However, as time passed, their movement evolved with the spirit of the times.

It is also called Dodokbu and Dokgunbu. It was organized in 1919 by Choi Jin-dong in Bongui-dong, Wangqing County, Manchuria. At the time of formation, there were about 600 troops, and they were organized with Park Young as chief of staff, Lee Chun-seung as battalion commander, Dong-chun Lee as company commander, and Choi Moon-in as platoon commander.[12] This organization, in alliance with Hong Beom-do's Korean Independence Army, developed an active domestic entry operation. In 1920, Anmu's National Association Army and Hong Beom-do's Korean Independence Army formed the Allied Command, and the total military strength exceeded 1,000. From the spring of 1920, this combined unit mainly attacked the Japanese army in Hamgyeongbuk-do, along the Tumen River, and achieved great results.[12]

Looking at the organization of the combined units, Commander Choi Jin-dong, Adjutant Choreography, Regimental Commander Hong Beom-do, 1st Company Commander Lee Chun-oh, 2nd Company Commander Kang Sang-mo, 3rd Company Commander Kang Si-beom, 4th Company Commander Jo Kwon-sik was the right).[12]

After the Battle of Cheongsan-ri in October 1920, Choi Jin-dong's unit, which crossed over to Primonsky Krai, and suffered a cataclysmic disaster due to the betrayal of the Soviet Army.[12]

In October 1919, under the leadership of Daejonggyo and Shinminhoe, Daehan Jeonguidan and Daehangunjeonghoe were merged and reorganized into Daehangunjeongbu. In December of that year, the Provisional Government in Shanghai agreed on the condition that the name be changed to Northern Military Administration Office (Korean: 북로군정서; Hanja: 北路軍政署).[13]

The officers at the time of the reorganization of the Northern Military Administration Office were President Seo Il, Commander-in-Chief Kim Jwa-jin, Chief of Staff Lee Jang-nyeong, Division Commander Kim Gyu-shik, Brigade Commander Choi Hae, Regimental Commander Jeong Hoon, Yeonseong Captain Lee Beom-seok. They included accountant Gyehwa, Jilin branch office adviser Yoon Bokyeong (尹復榮), and military discipline supervisor Yang Hyeon (梁玄).[13]

The Northern Military Administration Office set up the base in the forest area of about 30 acres in the area of Seodaepasimnipyeong in Wangqing County and built 8 barracks to establish a military academy. They requested help from Shinheung Military Academy, and was supplied with various teaching materials and a number of officers including Kim Chwa-chin and younger instructors Lee Beom-seok, Lee Jang-nyeong, Kim Gyu-sik, Kim Hong-guk, Choi Sang-un, and Oh Sang-se, citizens and young people coming from home were selected and full-scale military training was conducted.[13]

In the 6-month accelerated course, subjects such as mental education, history, military science, arts, gymnastics, and rules and regulations were set as subjects, and military training was conducted based on the old Korean military style. . In June 1920, out of 600 men who completed basic training, only 300 went into full-scale military training wearing gray military uniforms.[13]

In addition to military training, Gunjeongseo not only cooperated with independent movement organizations in Noryeong and Gando, but also served as a contact center for independence activists in northern Manchuria. While paying attention to local administration, elementary schools, night schools, and training centers were established, while promoting convenience in local industries.[13]

The armies under the office were organized into battalions. One platoon was composed of 50 people, two platoons were organized into one company, and two companies were organized into one battalion. The size of the troops was 500 in the early days, but in August 1920, it exceeded 1,600, and it became the strongest elite unit in Northeast Manchuria armed with 1,300 rifles, 150 pistols, and 7 machine guns. Operating funds were covered by local residents or collected from domestic sources. The funds were mainly used to purchase weapons, and the personal equipment per person in the independence army was 1 rifle, 500 bullets, 1 grenade, 6 sets of emergency food, and 1 pair of sandals.[13]

On May 3, 1920, at the request of the National Assembly, the National Association Armed Forces and the Military Administrative Department were allied to establish the Korean Northern Army Command (Daehanbukrodoggunbu (Hangul: 대한북로독군부, Hanja: 大韓北路督軍府).

The base was located in Fengwudong, Wangqing County. The Korea Military Association held a joint military operation with other Korean military and resistance forces in Wangchunhyeon Poomdong. Also located there were the Provisional Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Military Affairs, and the Korean Civil Corps. The northern Korean military group orchestrated many of the subsequent activities, specifically being in charge of administration, politics, and finances. The base was commanded by Commander Choi Jin-dong, Adjutant Officer Ahn Mu, Bukro 1st Army Headquarters and Military Commander Hong Beom-do became the head of the Korean Northern Army Command and was in charge of the military forces. The Korean rebels were assembled into four companies under the leadership of Yi Cheon-oh, Kang Sang-mo, Kang Si-beom, and Jo Kwon-dong. The 700 combined corps of Lee Won's Unit won a great victory from June 4 to 7, 1920 in the Battle of Samdunja and the Battle of Bongo-dong, inflicting 157 enemy casualties, 120 seriously injured, and 100 lightly wounded.[6]

On June 4, 1920, the army, which was led by Park Seung-gil, entered Jaseong County, Korea and ambushed Samdungja and attacked a Japanese army patrol. In retaliation, the Japanese army occupied Nanam-dong (now Cheongjin) in North Hamgyeong-do of the Japanese 19th Division headquarter base. By June 7, the Daehan Independence Army, National Association Army, Doron Ministry of Military, and the Shinmin Corps had defeated the battalion of 19th Division of the Japanese Army in Bong-o-dong and won the great victory. On July 8, Hong and his forces surprised and defeated the Japanese police who were searching for the independence forces in that area.[6]

On July 20, North Gando Independence Army groups were integrated into the Eastern Military Administration Office (Dongdogunjeongseo (Hangul: 동도군정서, Hanja: 東道軍政署), centered on the Northern Military Administration Office, and the Eastern Ministry of Military Office (Dongdodoggunbu (Hangul: 동도독군부, Hanja: 東道督軍府), centered on the Korean Independence Army.

This office consisted of 1,600 soldiers of the Bukrogunjeongseo Army with Kim Jwa-jin as the commander, and Hong Beomdo as the commander of the Dongdogunjeongseo, and the combined forces of the Korean Independence Army, National Association Army, Dodokbu Army, Uigundan Army, and Sinmindan Army consisted of 1,600 soldiers.[6]

On October 6, 15,000 soldiers of the 19th and 20th divisions under the Japanese Government-General of Korea dispatched troops to Gando, and on the 20th of this month, the North Gando Independence Army was reorganized again. The army under this office was organized into a regiment with Hong Beom-do leading them. The regiment consisted of the Korean Independence Army (300 soldiers), National Association Army (250 soldiers), Uigundan Army (250 soldiers), Hanminhoe Army (200 soldiers), Uimindangun (100 soldiers), Sinmindangun (100 soldiers), Gwangbokdangun ( 200), 2nd Regimental Commander Kim Jwa-jin had 1,600 people from Bukrogunjeongseo-gun, and 3rd Regimental Commander Choi Jin-dong had 600 people from the Military Martial Arts Department.[6]

Yun Bong-gil

On September 18, 1931, the Empire of Japan staged the Liutiaohu incident (bombing of the Manchu railroad) and Mukden Incident. The Chinese people's anti-Japanese fervor proliferated because of these incidents.[14] To promote Korea–China relations and to revitalize the depressed independence movement, the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea founded a secret organization which would carry out covert missions to assassinate key Japanese figures. That task was entrusted to Kim Gu.[15]

Kim Gu organized the Korean Patriotic Organization (Korean: 한인애국단; Hanja: 韓人愛國團) with about 80 members, mostly patriotic Korean youngsters. The organization was based in Shanghai, China. Leaders included Kim Suk, Ahn Gong-geun, Lee Su-bong, and Lee Yu-pil; other notable members were Yoo Sang-geun, Yoo Jin-man, Yun Bong-gil, Lee Bong-chang, Lee Duk-ju, and Choi Heung-sik.[15] The Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea hope to shock and halt Japan's aggression with assassinations.[14]

The Korean Patriotic Organization has been identified as being responsible for the assassination attempts. Following this, Japanese police authorities rushed to arrest key figures of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea by threatening the Shanghai French Concession. Many Korean activists sought refuge in Hangzhou and Jiaxing, through not all made it; among those arrested was Ahn Changho. The Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea eventually relocated to Hangzhou. Later it moved to Zhenjiang in 1935, and Nanjing in 1936. During that time, the activities of the Korean Patriotic Organization diminished.[16]

The Korean Independence Party (Korean: 한국독립군; Hanja: 韓國獨立軍) was established in Shanghai by Kim Koo in 1928, uniting a faction of conservative members of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea headed by Kim.[17]

The Korea Independence Army was established by the Korean Independence Party and was led by Kim Joo-young. Its main goal was to carry out armed resistance against the Japanese colonial authorities in Korea. The Korea Independence Army consisted mainly of Korean exiles who had fled Korea to escape Japanese repression, as well as Koreans living in China and other parts of Asia. It was initially based in Manchuria, a region in northeastern China, and the army conducted a number of guerrilla operations against Japanese forces in Korea, including attacks on police stations, government offices, and other targets. Despite its efforts, the Korea Independence Army faced significant challenges due to its lack of resources and support. It was not able to mount a sustained campaign against the Japanese colonial authorities, and the organization was eventually dissolved in 1931.[18]

Kim in 1927, portrait published in his autobiography With the Century

Flag of the Korean People's Revolutionary Army (KPRA)

After the fall of Korean People's Association in Manchuria, many of its members regrouped and established the Korean People's Revolutionary Army (KPRA). It was a military force established by the Korean Communist Party in April 25, 1932 by Kim Il Sung. The KPRA was formed with the goal of carrying out armed resistance against the Japanese colonial authorities in Korea and promoting Korean independence. The KPRA initially operated as a small guerrilla force, but grew in size and strength as more Koreans joined the fight against Japanese colonial rule. The KPRA was composed mainly of Korean exiles living in China, but also included some Chinese and other foreign fighters. The KPRA carried out a number of guerrilla operations against Japanese forces in Korea, including sabotage, ambushes, and assassinations. The organization also worked to build support for the Korean independence movement and conducted propaganda activities to raise awareness of the struggle for Korean independence.[19]

The KPRA works closely associated with the Chinese Communist Party and the provisional government receiving support such as training, financial assistance and diplomatic support. The provisional government saw the KPRA as an important tool in the struggle for Korean independence and worked closely with the organization to coordinate its activities. The KPRA was one of the most effective resistance groups operating in Korea during the Japanese colonial period as it was part of a broader coalition of communist and nationalist forces in China, known as the Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army, which fought against Japanese forces in Manchuria and other parts of China. However, it faced significant challenges due to its lack of resources and support. The organization was also targeted by Japanese counterinsurgency operations, and many of its leaders and members were arrested or killed by Japanese authorities. After the end of World War II, the KPRA played a role in the establishment of the North Korean regime. Many former members of the KPRA became prominent leaders in the North Korean government and military.[19]

The Korean National Revolutionary Party Army was a military force established by the Korean National Revolutionary Party, a communist and nationalist political party that was closely associated with the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea. The KNRP Army was established in the mid-1920s with the goal of carrying out armed resistance against the Japanese colonial authorities in Korea and promoting Korean independence. The organization was composed mainly of Korean exiles living in China, but also included some Chinese and other foreign fighters. The KNRP Army carried out a number of guerrilla operations against Japanese forces in Korea, including sabotage, ambushes, and assassinations. The organization also worked to build support for the Korean independence movement and conducted propaganda activities to raise awareness of the struggle for Korean independence. The KNRP Army faced significant challenges due to its lack of resources and support. The organization was also targeted by Japanese counterinsurgency operations, and many of its leaders and members were arrested or killed by Japanese authorities. Despite these challenges, the KNRP Army played an important role in the struggle against Japanese colonial rule in Korea. The organization's bravery and determination in the face of overwhelming odds are remembered as an inspiration to future generations of Koreans. After the establishment of the North Korean regime in 1948, many former members of the KNRP Army became prominent leaders in the North Korean government and military, including Kim Il Sung, the country's founding leader.[20]

The Chosun Communist Party Army was a military force established by the Chosun Communist Party, a communist political party in Korea. The CCP Army was active during the Korean War and fought on the side of North Korea and China against South Korea and the United Nations forces. The CCP Army was composed mainly of Korean soldiers, but also included some Chinese and other foreign fighters. The organization was initially formed in China in the 1920s and 1930s, where many Korean communists had fled to escape Japanese colonial rule in Korea. During this time, the CCP Army engaged in various activities, including military training, propaganda, and political organizing. The CCP Army received military training in China and later in the Soviet Union, where many Korean communists went to receive military and political education. The organization engaged in propaganda activities, producing newspapers and other materials to spread communist ideology and promote the Korean independence movement. In addition to its military and propaganda activities, the CCP Army also worked to organize Korean workers and peasants in China and Korea. The organization established networks of supporters and sympathizers, and worked to build support for the communist cause among the Korean people. The CCP Army's activities in the 1930s and 1940s laid the groundwork for the organization's role in the Korean War, where it fought alongside the North Korean People's Army and the Chinese People's Volunteer Army. The organization's military training, propaganda work, and political organizing helped to build a strong and committed base of support for the communist cause in Korea and China.[21]

The Korean Workers' Party Army was established as the military wing of the Korean Workers' Party in the 1920s. The party was heavily influenced by the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and other international communist movements. The KWP's primary aim was to establish a socialist state in Korea and to fight against Japanese colonial rule. The KWP Army carried out guerrilla operations against Japanese colonial authorities in Korea and worked to build support for the Korean independence movement. The KWP Army was closely associated with the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea to carry out military operations against the Japanese colonial authorities in Korea. The KWP Army received support from the Soviet Union, which provided military training and equipment to the organization. The Soviet Union was interested in spreading communism in Asia and saw Korea as an important battleground. The Soviet Union disbanded the KWP Army in the late 1930s as part of a collaboration policy with Japan.[22]