Maithili grammar

This page describes the grammar of Maithili language, which has a complex verbal system, nominal declension with a few inflections, and extensive use of honoroficity. It is an Indo-Aryan language native to the Maithili people and is spoken in the Indian state of Bihar with some speakers in Jharkhand and nearby states.The language has a large number of speakers in Nepal too, which is second in number of speakers after Bihar.[1]

Maithili has the following characteristic morphological features:

  • Number is not grammatically marked.
  • Gender distinctions are also absent in verbs and pronouns.
  • There is a lexical distinction of gender in the third person pronoun.
  • Transitive verbs are distinguished from intransitive.[2]

Nominals

Nouns are inflected for several cases. Grammarians consider only few of them to be pure inflection.

Cases Ending Nouns
Nominative ∅ हाथ [ɦaːtʰ] माला [maːlaː] पानि [paːɪn] हाथी [ɦaːtʰiː] आलू [aːluː]
Dative -kẽː हाथ कें [ɦaːtʰ kẽː] माला कें [maːlaː kẽː] पानि कें [paːɪn kẽː] हाथी कें [ɦaːtʰiː kẽː] आलू कें [aːluː kẽː]
Instrumental -ẽː हाथें [ɦaːtʰẽː] मालें [maːlẽː] पऻनिएँ [panɪẽː] हऻथिएँ [ɦatʰɪẽː] ॴलुएँ [alʊẽː]
Instrumental Ablative -sɔ̃ हाथ सँ꣱ [ɦaːtʰ sɔ̃] माला सँ꣱ [maːlaː sɔ̃] पानि सँ꣱ [paːɪn sɔ̃] हाथी सँ꣱ [ɦaːtʰiː sɔ̃] आलू सँ꣱ [aːluː sɔ̃]
Locative - meː हाथ मे [ɦaːtʰ meː] माला मे [maːlaː meː] पानि मे [paːɪn meː] हाथी मे [ɦaːtʰiː meː] आलू मे [aːluː meː]
Possessive - ək हाथक [ɦaːtʰək] मालाक [maːlaːk] पानिक [paːnɪk] हाथीक [ɦaːtʰiːk] आलूक [aːluːk]
Case name Postpositions Examples English translation Singular Inflection Plural Inflection*
Nominative

(कर्ता kartā)

 नेना खाइत छे। Boy is eating. ∅ (Inherent Vowel) -(अ)न,

-(अ)नि

(ə)nᵊ, (ə)nɪ̆

Accusative

(कर्म karma)[3]

 Definite Object

(without determiners)

 के ke ऊ नेनाके खिलाइ तꣿ। He/she will feed the boy. Postposition used

←

Indefinite

Object

 बियाहक बादि ऊ नेना पालतꣿ । He/she nurture a boy, after marriage ∅
Instrumental

(करण karaṇa)

 सँ꣱ sɔ̃ नेनासँ꣱ गिरल रहꣿ। It was fallen by the boy. -एँ ẽː** -(अ)न्हि

(ə)nʰɪ̆

Dative

(सम्प्रदान sampradāna)

 के, लऽ, लेल

keː, ləː, leːl

 नेनाके खाना खिलाउ। Feed the boy the food. -(अ)ल

(ə)lə

 Postposition used ←
Ergative[4]

(सापेक्ष)‡

 न, नॆ nə, ne नेनेँ पेड़ दॆखलकꣿ। The boy saw the tree. -एँ ẽː, nasalised vowel No forms
Ablative

(अपादान apādāna)

 तोँ tõː (mostly for comparative)

से seː

 पेड़से फल गिरलकꣿ। Fruit fell from the tree. -(अ)तः

(ə)təh

-(अ)हु*

Genitive

(सम्बन्ध sambandha)

 कर kər नेनाक खॆॆलॏना छिकꣿ। The toy is of the boy. -(अ)क

(ə)k

-(अ)र (ə)r

 -केर, -आँँक

keːr, ãːkə̆

Locative

(अधिकरण adhikaraṇa)

 तऽ təː

मेँ, मँ꣱

(Inessive)

पर्, पे pər, peː (Superessive)

 छतिपर् रखने छꣿ।
 It is placed on the terrace. -ए eː**
-(अ)हि*		 -आँ ãː
Postpositional

(परसर्गीय parasargīya)§

 अगला महीनामेँ हॊऎतꣿ। It will happen in next month. ∅

(In र, ड़, ढ़, ल, न, ब stems

-आ aː)

 -(अ)न,

-(अ)नि

(ə)nᵊ, (ə)nɪ̆

(ə)nᵊ, (ə)nɪ̆

Vocative

(सम्बोधन sambodhana)

 रॏ नेनऽ! आउ। O boy! Come. ∅
  • *These forms are abundant in literature, but are less used in spoken language.
  • ‡Ergative is more used in eastern and southern dialects. Maithili also has parallel accusative structure and both can be used. If ergative is used, then nominative is used as absolutive.
  • **Used only in neuter and inanimates.
  • §It is used, when a postposition is added to the word. Some other postpositions are-
Case name Postposition
Allative दक dəkə
Terminative तक, ला tək, laː
Abessive बिनु bɪnʊ
Adverbial जकाँ , सोँ dʑəkãː, sõː
Genitive adjectives Masculine object क꣱, र꣱> kɔ, rɔ
Feminine object कि, रि kɪ, rɪ
Neuter object क, र kə, rə

Some postpositions are added to the genitive too.

  • Inflectional plural is less in use than the Periphrastic one, and is mostly found in literature.
  • Periphrastic Plural is made सभsuffixes like सभऺ səbʰᵊ; लोकनि loːknɪ̆, सबहि səbəɦɪ̆, गण ɡəɳ, जन dʑən could be used for animates and आरनि aːrənɪ̆, सनि sənɪ for all.

Common vowel stem
Case name Singular Inflection Plural Inflection
Feminine Masculine Neuter Feminine Masculine Neuter
Nominative -इ ɪ -आ/अऽ aː/ɔ -इन ɪn -अन, -अनि

ənᵊ, ənɪ̆

 -अन, -अनि

ənᵊ, ənɪ̆

Accusative

(Indefinite)

 -ई iː -ई iː -आ aː
Instrumental Postposition used -एँ ẽː Postposition used -अन्हि

ənʰɪ̆

Dative Postposition used
-इल ɪlə -अल ələ No forms
Ergative -इएँ ɪẽː -एँ ẽː
Ablative -इतः ɪtəh -अतः

ətəh

Genitive -इक ɪk, इर ɪr -अक ək, -अर ər -ईंक ĩːk -आँँक

ãːk

Locative Postposition used -ए eː Postposition used -आँ

ãː

Vocative -इ ɪ/ई iː -आ/अ२ aː/əː -इन ɪn -अन, -अनि

ənᵊ, ənɪ̆

Consonant stem
Case name Singular Inflection Plural Inflection
Masculine Neuter Masculine Neuter
Nominative ∅ -अन, -अनि

ənᵊ, ənɪ̆

 -अन, -अनि

ənᵊ, ənɪ̆

Accusative

(Indefinite)

 ∅
Instrumental Postposition used -एँ ẽː Postposition used -अन्हि

ənʰɪ̆

Dative Postposition used
-अल ələ No forms
Ergative -एँ ẽː
Ablative -अतः

ətəh

Genitive -अक ək, -अर ər -आँँक ãːk
Locative Postposition used -ए eː Postposition used -आँ

ãː

Vocative ∅ -अन, -अनि

ənᵊ, ənɪ̆

Feminine stem -आ aː
Case name Singular Inflection Plural Inflection
Nominative -आ aː -अन, -अनि

ənᵊ, ənɪ̆

Accusative

(Indefinite)

 -आ aː
Instrumental Postposition used, -एँ ẽː*
Dative Postposition used
-आल aːlə No forms
Ergative -आएँ aːẽː, आँ ãː
Ablative -आतः

aːtəh

Genitive -आक aːk, -आर aːr -आँँक ãːk
Locative Postposition used
Vocative -ए†/आ eː/aː -अन, -अनि

ənᵊ, ənɪ̆

  • *Though, used for neuter and inanimates, it is used for female inanimates or abstract.
  • †Used for tatsama words (words borrowed from Sanskrit).

Other Vowel stems
इ ई उ ऊ ऎ ऒ ए ऐ ओ औ
Masculine ✓ × ✓ × ✓ ✓ ✓ × ✓ ✓
Feminine ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ × × ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Neuter ✓ × ✓ × ✓ ✓ ✓ × ✓ ✓
Declension irregularities
Ergative Nasalised vowel or ↓
Instrumental

(Neuter only)*

 इएँ उएँ एँ ऒएँ अयेँ आयेँ अवेँ आवेँ
Locative

(Neuter only)

 इए उए ए ऒए अये आये अवे आवे
Vocative† ए इ ओ उ ए ओ ए ओ ऐ औ
  • Specifically saying, inanimates.
  • Sanskrit vocative, could be used or not.

Adjectives

The difference between adjectives and nouns is very minute in Maithili. However, there are marked adjectives there in Maithili.

Masculine Feminine Neuter
Definite -का/क꣱ kaː/kɔ -कि/कि kɪ/kɪ̆ का kəː
Indefinite -आ/अ꣱ aː/ɔ -इ/इ ɪ/ɪ̆ अ/अऽ ᵊ/əː

Pronouns

Pronouns in Maithili are declined in similar way to nominals. However, genetic case has a different form in most of the pronouns.

First and Second Person Pronouns[1]
Case name First Person Second Person
Exclusive Inclusive (Plural) First Grade Honour Honorofic High-Honorofic
Nominative हम ɦəm Normally Declined अपना सभ ɐpᵊnaː səbʰᵊ तोँह tõːhᵊ अहाँ ɐɦãː Declined Normally अपने ɐpᵊneː
Accusative/Postpositional हमरा ɦəmᵊraː तॊहरा/तोरा toɦᵊraː/toːraː अहाँ (के) ɐɦãː (keː)
Instrumental हमरेँ ɦəmᵊrẽː तोहऺरेँ toɦᵊrẽː अहेँ ɐɦẽː
Dative हमरा ɦəmᵊraː तोहरा/तोरा toɦᵊraː/toːraː अहाँ के ɐɦãː ke
हमराल ɦəmᵊraːlə तोहराल toɦᵊraːlə अहाँलऽ ɐɦãːləː
Ergative हम्मेँ ɦəmmẽː तोएँ/तोहेँ toːẽː/toɦẽː अहꣿँ ɐɦə̃ɪ̯̃
Genitive हमर/हम्मर

ɦəmər/ɦəmmər

 अपना सभक ɐpᵊnaː səbʰəkə तोहर toɦər अहाँक ɐɦãːk

Third Person Pronouns[1]
Case name Proximate Second Person
First Grade Honour Honorofic Neuter First Grade Honour Honorofic Neuter
Nominative ई iː ए, हिनि eː, ɦɪnɪ ए eː ऊ, वा uː, ʋaː ओ, हुनि oː, ɦʊnɪ ऒ o
Accusative/Postpositional ऎकरा ekᵊraː हिनका ɦɪnᵊkaː ऎहि, ꣾ, अथि eɦɪ, əɪ, ɐtʰɪ ऒकरा okᵊraː हुनका ɦʊnᵊkaː ऒहि, ॵ oɦɪ, əʊ
Instrumental ऎकरेँ ekᵊrẽː हिनकेँ ɦɪnᵊkẽː एँ ẽː ऒकरेँ okᵊrẽː हुनकेँ ɦʊnᵊkẽː ओँ õː
Dative ऎकरा ekᵊraː हिनका ɦɪnᵊkaː ऎहि eɦɪ ऒकरा okᵊraː हुनका ɦʊnᵊkaː ऒहि oɦɪ
ऎकराल ekᵊraːl हिनकाल ɦɪnᵊkaːl एलॅ eːlæ ऒकराल okᵊraːl हुनकाल ɦʊnᵊkaːl ओलऽ oːləː
Ergative येँ ɪẽː येँ, हिनेँ ɪẽː, ɦɪnẽː एँ ẽː वेँ ʊẽː ओँ õː
Genitive एकर eːkər हिनकर, हिनक ɦɪnᵊkər, ɦɪnək एकर eːkər ओकर oːkər हुनकर, हुनक ɦʊnᵊkər, ɦʊnᵊkaː ओकर oːkər

Verbs

Conjugation of a transitive verb "कह" /kəɦ/ 'to tell'.

Subject Object Present Past Future Imperative Optative Conditional Remote Imperative
First
Second HON कही [kəɦiː] कहली [kəɦəliː] कहब [kəɦəb] कहू [kəɦuː] कही [kəɦiː] कहितहुँ [kəɦɪtəɦʊ̃] ∅
कहलहुँ [kəɦᵊləɦʊ̃]
Equal कहिअहु [kəɦɪəɦʊ] कहलिअहु [kəɦᵊlɪəɦʊ] कहबहु [kəɦᵊbəɦʊ] कहिअहु [kəɦɪəɦʊ] कहिअहु [kəɦɪəɦʊ] कहितिअहु [kəɦɪtɪəɦʊ] ∅
NonHON कहिऔक [kəɦɪəʊ̯k] कहलिऔक [kəɦᵊlɪəʊ̯k] कहबौक [kəɦᵊbəʊ̯k] कहिऔक [kəɦɪəʊ̯k] कहिऔक [kəɦɪəʊ̯k] कहितिऔक [kəɦɪtɪəʊ̯k] ∅
Third HON कहिअन्हि [kəɦɪəɪ̯nɦ] कहलिअन्हि [kəɦᵊlɪəɪ̯nɦ] कहबन्हि [kəɦᵊbəɪ̯nɦ] कहिऔन्ह् [kəɦɪəʊ̯nɦ] कहिएन्ह् [kəɦɪeːnɦ] कहितिऐन्ह् [kəɦɪtɪəɪ̯nɦ] ∅
NonHON कहिऐक [kəɦɪəɪ̯k] कहलिऐक [kəɦᵊlɪəɪ̯k] कहबैक [kəɦᵊbəɪ̯k] कहिऔक [kəɦɪəʊ̯k] कहिऐक [kəɦɪəɪ̯k] कहितिऐक [kəɦɪtɪəɪ̯k] ∅
Second HON First कही [kəɦiː] कहली [kəɦᵊliː] कहब [kəɦəb] कहू [kəɦuː] कही [kəɦiː] कहितहुँ [kəɦɪtəɦʊ̃] ∅
कहलहुँ [kəɦᵊləɦʊ̃]
Third HON कहिअन्हि [kəɦɪəɪ̯nɦ] कहलिअन्हि [kəɦᵊlɪəɪ̯nɦ] कहबन्हि [kəɦᵊbəɪ̯nɦ] कहिऔन्ह् [kəɦɪəʊ̯nɦ] कहिऐन्ह् [kəɦɪəɪ̯nɦ] कहितिऐक [kəɦɪtɪəɪ̯k] ∅
NonHON कहिऐक [kəɦɪəɪ̯k] कहलिऐक [kəɦᵊlɪəɪ̯k] कहबैक [kəɦᵊbəɪ̯k] कहिऔक [kəɦɪəʊ̯k] कहिऐक [kəɦɪəɪ̯k] कहितह [kəɦɪtəɦ] ∅
Equal First कहह [kəɦəɦ] कहलह [kəɦᵊləɦ] कहबह [kəɦᵊbəɦ] कहह [kəɦəɦ] कहह [kəɦəɦ] कहितहुन्हु [kəɦɪtəɦʊnɦ] कहिहह [kəɦɪɦəɦ]
Third HON कहुन्ह् [kəɦʊnɦ] कहलहुन्ह् [kəɦᵊləɦʊnɦ] कहबहुन्ह् [kəɦᵊbəɦʊnɦ] कहुन्ह् [kəɦʊnɦ] कहुन्ह् [kəɦʊnɦ] कहितहिक [kəɦɪtəɦɪk] कहिहौन्ह् [kəɦɪɦəʊ̯nɦ]
NONHON कहक [kəɦək] कहलहक [kəɦᵊləɦək] कहबहक [kəɦᵊbəɦək] कहक [kəɦək] कहक [kəɦək] ∅ कहिहक [kəɦɪɦək]
NonHON First कहें [kəɦeː] कहलें [kəɦᵊleː] कहबें [kəɦᵊbeː] कह [kəɦ] कह‍हिं [kəɦəɦɪ̃] ∅ कह‍हिं [kəɦəɦɪ̃]
Third HON कहुन्ह् [kəɦʊnɦ] कहलहुन्ह् [kəɦᵊləɦʊnɦ] कहबहुन्ह् [kəɦᵊbəɦʊnɦ] कहुन्ह् [kəɦʊnɦ] कहुनह् [kəɦʊnəɦ] ∅ कहिहौन्ह् [kəɦɪɦəʊ̯nɦ]
NonHON कहिक [kəɦɪk] कहलहीक [kəɦᵊləɦiːk] कहबहीक [kəɦᵊbəɦiːk] कहीक [kəɦiːk] कहीक [kəɦiːk] कहितथि [kəɦɪtəɪ̯tʰ] कहिहक [kəɦɪɦək]
Third HON First कह‍थि [kəɦəɪ̯tʰ] कहलन्हि [kəɦᵊləɪ̯nɦ] कहताह [kəɦᵊtaːɦ] कह‍थु [kəɦəʊ̯tʰ] कहाथि [kəɦaːɪtʰ] कहितथि [kəɦɪtəɪ̯tʰ] ∅
कहतीह [kəɦᵊtiːɦ]
Second HON कह‍थि [kəɦəɪ̯tʰ] कहलनि [kəɦᵊləɪ̯n] कहताह [kəɦᵊtaːɦ] कह‍थु [kəɦəʊ̯tʰ] कहाथि [kəɦaːɪtʰ] कहिथुन्ह् [kəɦɪtʰʊnɦ] ∅
Equal कहथुन्ह् [kəɦᵊtʰʊnɦ] कहलनि [kəɦᵊləɪ̯n] कहथुन्ह् [kəɦᵊtʰʊnɦ] कहथुन्ह् [kəɦᵊtʰʊnɦ] कहथुन्ह् [kəɦᵊtʰʊnɦ] कहिथुन्ह् [kəɦɪtʰʊnɦ] ∅
NonHON कहथुन्ह् [kəɦᵊtʰʊnɦ] कहलथुन्ह् [kəɦᵊlətʰʊnɦ] कहथुन्ह् [kəɦᵊtʰʊnɦ] कहथुन्ह् [kəɦᵊtʰʊnɦ] कहथुन्ह् [kəɦᵊtʰʊnɦ] कहितथिन्हु [kəɦɪtətʰɪʊnɦ] ∅
Third HON कहथिन्ह् [kəɦᵊtʰɪnɦ] कहलथिन्ह् [kəɦᵊlətʰɪnɦ] कहथिन्ह् [kəɦᵊtʰɪnɦ] कहथुन्ह् [kəɦᵊtʰʊnɦ] कहथुन्ह् [kəɦᵊtʰʊnɦ] कहितए [kəɦɪtəeː] ∅
कहैत [kəɦəɪ̯t]
NonHON कहथिन्ह् [kəɦᵊtʰɪnɦ] कहलथिन्ह् [kəɦᵊlətʰɪnɦ] कहथिन्ह् [kəɦᵊtʰɪnɦ] कहथुह [kəɦᵊtʰʊɦ] कहथुह [kəɦᵊtʰʊɦ] कहितए [kəɦɪtəeː]
कहैत [kəɦəɪ̯t] ∅
NonHON First कहए [kəɦəeː] कहलक [kəɦᵊlək] कहत [kəɦət] कहऒ [kəɦɔ] कहऒ [kəɦɔ] कहितहु [kəɦɪtəɦʊ] ∅
Second HON कहए [kəɦəeː] कहलक [kəɦᵊlək] कहत [kəɦət] कहऒ [kəɦɔ] कहऒ [kəɦɔ] कहितहु [kəɦɪtəɦʊ] ∅
Equal कहहु [kəɦəɦʊ] कहलकहु [kəɦᵊləkəɦʊ] कहतहु [kəɦᵊtəɦʊ] कहहु [kəɦᵊɦʊ] कहहु [kəɦᵊɦʊ] कहितौक [kəɦɪtəʊ̯k] ∅
NonHON कहौक [kəɦəʊ̯k] कहलकौक [kəɦᵊləkəʊ̯k] कहतौक [kəɦᵊtəʊ̯k] कहौक [kəɦəʊ̯k] कहौक [kəɦəʊ̯k] कहितन्हि [kəɦɪtəɪ̯nɦ] ∅
Third HON कहन्हि [kəɦəɪ̯nɦ] कहलकन्हि [kəɦᵊləkəɪ̯nɦ] कहतनि [kəɦᵊtəɪ̯n] कहौन्ह् [kəɦəʊ̯nɦ] कहैन्ह् [kəɦəɪ̯nɦ] कहितैक [kəɦɪtəɪ̯k] ∅
NonHON कहैक [kəɦəɪ̯k] कहलकैक [kəɦᵊləkəɪ̯k] कहतैक [kəɦətəɪ̯k] कहौक [kəɦəʊ̯k] कहौक [kəɦəʊ̯k] ∅


References
  1. Yadav, Ramawatar (1996). A Reference Grammar of Maithili. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-014558-8.
  2. Yadav, Ramawatar (1996). A Reference Grammar of Maithili. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-014558-8.
  3. "Maithili". lisindia.ciil.org. Retrieved 2020-04-22.
  4. "Maithili Variation". lisindia.ciil.org. Retrieved 2020-04-22.
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