Religion and alcohol

The teachings of the Baháʼí Faith forbids the consumption of alcohol and other drugs unless prescribed by a physician. Intoxicants take away reason, interfere with making moral decisions, and harm the mind and body. Baháʼís are also encouraged to avoid jobs related to the production or sale of alcohol and are forbidden from involvement in the drug trade. Those addicted to alcohol or other drugs should seek medical assistance from doctors and/or support from organizations dedicated to curing addiction.[1]

Christian views on alcohol are varied. Throughout the first 1,800 years of Church history, Christians generally consumed alcoholic beverages as a common part of everyday life and used "the fruit of the vine"[2] in their central rite—the Eucharist or Lord's Supper.[3][4] They held that both the Bible and Christian tradition taught that alcohol is a gift from God that makes life more joyous, but that over-indulgence leading to drunkenness is sinful or at least a vice.[5][6]

In the mid-19th century, some Protestant Christians moved from a position of allowing moderate use of alcohol (sometimes called moderationism) to either deciding that not imbibing was wisest in the present circumstances (abstentionism) or prohibiting all ordinary consumption of alcohol because it was believed to be a sin (prohibitionism).[7] Many Protestant churches, particularly Methodists and other Evangelical groups, advocate for abstentionism and prohibitionism, being early leaders in the temperance movement of the 19th and 20th centuries; the Book of Discipline of the Evangelical Methodist Church Conference, for example, teaches:[8]

Intemperance is excess of any kind of action, or indulgence, or exertion of body or mind, or any indulgence of appetites or passions which are injurious to the person, or contrary to morality. The scriptures teach us to be temperate in all things (I Cor. 9:25), this includes total abstinence from all that has the appearance of evil. No member shall be permitted to use, manufacture or sell intoxicating liquors, tobacco, or recreational drugs. ... The use of intoxicating liquors as a beverage, or trafficking therein; giving influence to, or voting for, the licensing of places for the sale of the same; using tobacco in any of its forms, or trafficking therein, is forbidden.[8]

Churches in the Methodist tradition (inclusive of those aligned with the holiness movement) require that "pure, unfermented juice of the grape" be used in the sacrament of Holy Communion.[9]

Today, these positions exist in Christianity, but the position of moderationism remains the most common worldwide, due to the adherence by the largest bodies of Christians, namely Lutheranism, Roman Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy and Anglicanism.

In the Catholic Church, the Eucharistic wine becomes the Blood of Jesus Christ through transubstantiation.[10] In Lutheran theology, the blood of Christ is in, with and under the sacramental wine (cf. sacramental union).[11] The Plymouth Brethren teach that the wine is a symbol of the blood of Christ. Monastic communities like Trappists have brewed beer and made wine.

Hinduism does not have a central authority which is followed by all Hindus, though religious texts generally discourage the use or consumption of specific types of alcohol for specific castes while some texts refer to alcohol with a more positive opinion.

In Śruti texts such as Vedas and Upanishads which are the most authoritative texts in Hinduism and considered apauruṣeya, which means "authorless", intoxication is considered as a recipe of sinfulness, weakness, failure and violent behaviour in several verses:

Those who consume intoxicants lose their intellect, talk rubbish, get naked and fight with each other.

— Rigveda 8.2.12[12]

An action performed as per the inner voice does not lead to sins. Dumb arrogance against inner voice, however, is source of frustration and miseries in same manner as intoxication and gambling destroy us. Ishwar inspires those with noble elevated thoughts towards progress and propels down those who decide to think lowly. Lowly acts performed even in dreams cause decline.

— Rigveda 7.86.6[12]

Weak minds are attracted towards meat, alcohol, sensuality and womanizing. But O non-violent mind, you focus your mind towards the world in same manner as a mother cares for her child.

— Atharvaveda 6.70.1[12]

A person who steals gold, or drinks liquor, or goes to bed with his teacher's wife, or kills a brāhmin—these four are lost. Also lost is the fifth—one who keeps company with such people.

— Chandogya Upanishad 5.10.9[13]

In Smriti texts which are considered less authoritative than Sruti, the verses contradict each other and encourage the use of alcohol but remind of abstention being better. In Hindu texts, particularly the Dharma Shastras, the consumption of alcohol is addressed with varying levels of restriction based on caste. The Manu Smriti, a key text outlining the norms and codes of conduct for various social classes, prescribes different regulations for alcohol consumption among castes. While the Kshatriya caste, comprising warriors and rulers, is allowed to consume alcohol in moderation as part of their social and ceremonial functions, the Brahmin caste, consisting of priests, scholars, and teachers, is generally discouraged from consuming alcohol due to their spiritual and religious responsibilities. For the Vaishya caste, which includes merchants and traders, and the Shudra caste, comprising laborers and service providers, the Manu Smriti lays down specific rules and restrictions regarding alcohol consumption. It is important to note that the caste-based rules on alcohol consumption, like many other aspects of the caste system, have been subject to criticism and reinterpretation in modern times. Contemporary Hinduism has seen a shift towards a more egalitarian perspective, emphasizing individual choice and responsibility in matters such as alcohol consumption, rather than strict adherence to caste-based rules.

A twice-born person, having, through folly, drunk wine, shall drink wine red-hot; he becomes freed from his guilt, when his body has been completely burnt by it.

— Manusmriti 11.90, Gautama 23.1, Baudhāyana 2.1.18, Āpastamba 1.25.3, Vaśiṣtha 20.19, Yājñavalkya 3.253[14]

There is no sin in the eating of meat, nor in wine, nor in sexual intercourse,
Such is the natural way of living beings; but abstention is conducive to great rewards.

— Manusmriti 5.56[15]

The ten intoxicating drinks are unclean for a Brahmana; but a Kshatriya and a Vaishya commit no wrong in drinking them.

— Vishnu Smrti 22:84

Any brāhmaṇa or brāhmaṇa's wife who drinks liquor is taken by the agents of Yamarāja to the hell known as Ayaḥpāna. This hell also awaits any kṣatriya, vaiśya, or person under a vow who in illusion drinks soma-rasa. In Ayaḥpāna the agents of Yamarāja stand on their chests and pour hot melted iron into their mouths.

— Bhāgavata Purāṇa 5.26.29[16]

The hell named Kaṣmala is full of phlegm and nasal mucus. The man who takes interest in wine and flesh is cast into that hell and kept there for the period of a Kalpa.

— Brahma Purana 106.127 [17]

The wretched Brahmana who from this day, unable to resist the temptation, will drink wine shall be regarded as having lost his virtue, shall be reckoned to have committed the sin of slaying a Brahmana, shall be hated both in this and the other worlds. I set this limit to the conduct and dignity of Brahmanas everywhere. Let the honest, let Brahmanas, let those with regard for their superiors, let the gods, let the three worlds, listen!.

— Mahabharata Adi Parva Sambhava Parva LXXVI[18]

In Adi Shankara's Shankara Bhashya[19] and Ramanuja's Sri Bhasya[20] on Brahma Sutras, they quote Kathaka Samhita against drinking alcohol while some sects, like the Aghori, use it as part of their ritual.

Sutra 3.4.31 "And hence the scriptural text prohibiting license. (For this reason also the scripture is against doing according to desire)"
There are scriptural passages prohibiting one from doing everything just as one pleases. License freedom from all discipline, cannot help us to attain Knowledge. "Therefore a Brahmana must not drink liquor" (Kathaka Sam.). Such Sruti texts are meant for this discipline.[19]

In Hinduism, caste-based restrictions on alcohol consumption have historically played a significant role in defining social norms and behaviors. The caste system is a hierarchical social structure divided into four main categories, or varnas: Brahmins (priests and scholars), Kshatriyas (warriors and rulers), Vaishyas (merchants and traders), and Shudras (laborers and service providers). Each varna has its own set of duties, responsibilities, and restrictions, which also extend to alcohol consumption. According to Hindu texts such as the Dharma Shastras, Brahmins, the highest caste, are generally prohibited from consuming alcohol, as they are expected to maintain the highest standards of purity, peacefulness and religious responsibility. Drinking alcohol is considered to be a contaminating act that could compromise a Brahmin's ability to perform religious rites and rituals. Kshatriyas, the warrior and ruler caste, are traditionally allowed to consume alcohol, albeit with moderation. This allowance is partly due to their role in the social order, which involves engaging in warfare, administration, and upholding justice. Alcohol consumption is often depicted in the context of celebrations and festivities, but excessive drinking is discouraged. Vaishyas, the merchant and trader caste, are also expected to practice moderation when it comes to alcohol consumption. As they are responsible for trade, agriculture, and business, they need to maintain a level of self-control to ensure their professional and social success. Shudras, the laborer and service provider caste, have historically had fewer restrictions on alcohol consumption. However, as with the other castes, moderation and self-control are still considered important values. It is important to note that the caste system's influence on alcohol consumption varies greatly depending on regional, cultural, and historical factors. Modern Hinduism has witnessed a shift away from strict discriminatory caste-based practices.[21] The caste system in Hinduism has been a source of discrimination and social inequality for centuries. While the caste system is an ancient and complex social structure, it has led to various discriminatory practices that have persisted throughout history. Historically, the lowest rung of the caste hierarchy was occupied by the "untouchables" or Dalits, who were considered impure and relegated to performing menial tasks such as cleaning streets, removing dead animals, and working with sewage.[22] They were often segregated from the rest of society, facing discrimination in access to public amenities, housing, and employment opportunities. This practice of untouchability has been outlawed in India since the 1950s,[21] but it continues to persist in some areas and has a lasting impact on the social and economic status of the Dalit community. Caste-based discrimination has also resulted in limited occupational opportunities for certain castes.[23] Traditionally, the caste system dictated the professions that individuals could pursue, effectively restricting social mobility. For example, Brahmins were considered the priestly caste, while Shudras were relegated to labor and service roles. Although modern India has witnessed a shift away from these rigid occupational boundaries, caste-based discrimination in the workforce still exists in some areas. Discrimination based on caste has often influenced marriage and social relationships within Hindu society.[24] Marrying outside one's caste, known as inter-caste marriage, has been historically discouraged and, in some cases, met with violence and ostracism. Similarly, caste-based discrimination has affected social interactions, with individuals from higher castes avoiding contact with those from lower castes to prevent ritual pollution. Historically, access to education was restricted based on caste. Brahmins, as the priestly and scholarly caste, had the most access to education, while lower castes, particularly the Shudras and Dalits, were often denied educational opportunities.[25] This has contributed to significant educational disparities between castes, which continue to impact the social and economic status of marginalized communities. Caste-based discrimination has also extended to religious participation, with some temples and religious ceremonies being restricted to specific castes. In some cases, Dalits and other lower castes have been barred from entering temples or participating in religious rituals. It is important to note that the caste system's influence on Hindu society has evolved over time, and many contemporary Hindus advocate for social reform and the dismantling of caste-based discrimination. The Indian Constitution has implemented measures to promote social equality, such as affirmative action policies and the outlawing of untouchability. However, the lingering effects of the caste system and the persistence of discriminatory practices in some areas continue to present challenges for social equality within Hindu society.

Observant Buddhists typically avoid consuming alcohol (surāmerayamajja, referring to types of intoxicating fermented beverages), as it violates the 5th of the Five Precepts, the basic Buddhist code of ethics and can disrupt mindfulness and impede one's progress in the Noble Eightfold Path.[26]

In Jainism, no alcohol consumption of any kind is allowed, neither are there any exceptions like occasional or social drinking. The most important reason against alcohol consumption is the effect of alcohol on the mind and soul. In Jainism, any action or reaction that alter or impacts the mind is violence (himsa) towards own self, which is a five-sense human being. Violence to other five sense beings or to own self is violence. Jains do not consume fermented foods (beer, wine and other alcohols) to avoid killing of a large number of microorganisms associated with the fermenting process.[27]

An initiated Sikh cannot use or consume intoxicants, of which wine is one.[28]

In the Quran, khamr, meaning "wine", is variably referenced as an incentive from Satan, as well as a cautionary note against its adverse effect on human attitude in several verses:

O you who have believed, indeed, intoxicants, gambling, [sacrificing on] stone altars [to other than Allah], and divining arrows are but defilement from the work of Satan, so avoid it that you may be successful.

— Surat 5:90

Satan only wants to cause between you animosity and hatred through intoxicants and gambling and to avert you from the remembrance of Allah and from prayer. So will you not desist?

— Surat 5:91

Another verse acknowledges the benefit of wine but notes that its harm is bigger.

They ask you about wine and gambling. Say, In them is great sin and benefit for people. But their sin is greater than their benefit." And they ask you what they should spend. Say, "The excess [beyond needs]. Thus Allah makes clear to you the verses [of revelation] that you might give thought.

— Surat 2:219

And from the fruits of the palm trees and grapevines you take intoxicant and good provision. Indeed in that is a sign for a people who reason.

— Surat 16:67

The Quran states that one of the delights of Paradise for the righteous is wine as a promise by God.

Is the description of Paradise, which the righteous are promised, wherein are rivers of water unaltered, rivers of milk the taste of which never changes, rivers of wine delicious to those who drink, and rivers of purified honey, in which they will have from all [kinds of] fruits and forgiveness from their Lord, like [that of] those who abide eternally in the Fire and are given to drink scalding water that will sever their intestines?

— Surat 47:15

Islamic countries have low rates of alcohol consumption. However, a minority of Muslims do drink and believe consuming alcohol is not Qur'anically forbidden (haram).[29][30]

Judaism relates to consumption of alcohol, particularly of wine, in a complex manner. Wine is viewed as a substance of import and it is incorporated in religious ceremonies, and the general consumption of alcoholic beverages is permitted, however inebriation (drunkenness) is discouraged.

This compound approach to wine can be viewed in the verse in Psalms 104:15, "Wine gladdens human hearts,"[36] countered by the verses in Proverbs 20:1, "Wine is a mocker, strong drink is riotous; and whoever stumbles in it is not wise,"[37] and Proverbs 23:20, "Be not among drunkards or among gluttonous eaters of meat."[38]

Sake is often consumed as part of Shinto purification rituals.[53] Sakes served to gods as offerings prior to drinking are called Omiki (お神酒).[54] People drink Omiki with gods to communicate with them and to solicit rich harvests the following year.

In the Vodou faith of Haiti, alcoholic drinks such as rum are consumed to be able to allow spirits called "lwa" to enter one's body and help them find the motivation for or strength to survive everyday struggles or life.[55]

Bacchus pours wine from a cup for a panther, while Silenus plays the lyre, circa 30 BC.

In Ancient Egyptian religion, beer and wine were drunk and offered to the gods in rituals and festivals. Beer and wine were also stored with the mummified dead in Egyptian burials.[56] Other ancient religious practices like Chinese ancestor worship, Sumerian and Babylonian religion used alcohol as offerings to gods and to the deceased. The Mesopotamian cultures had various wine gods and a Chinese imperial edict (c. 1,116 B.C.) states that drinking alcohol in moderation is prescribed by Heaven.[56]

In the ancient Mediterranean world, the Cult of Dionysus and the Orphic mysteries used wine as part of their religious practices. During Dionysian festivals and rituals, wine was drunk as way to reach ecstatic states along with music and dance. Intoxication from alcohol was seen as a state of possession by spirit of the god of wine Dionysus. Religious drinking festivals called Bacchanalia were popular in Italy and associated with the gods Bacchus and Liber. These Dionysian rites were frequently outlawed by the Roman Senate.

In the Norse religion the drinking of ales and meads was important in several seasonal religious festivals such as Yule and Midsummer as well as more common festivities like wakes, christenings and ritual sacrifices called Blóts. Neopagan and Wiccan religions also allow for the use of alcohol for ritual purposes as well as for recreation.[57]

Research has been conducted by social scientists and epidemiologists to see if correlations exist between religiosity and alcoholism.[58][59] It showed that, in Ireland, religious teenagers have a more restricted attitude towards alcohol, but the study was limited to Christianity.[58] By contrast, in America, the extent of the correlation between alcohol consumption and religion depended upon religious denomination.[59]

• Food and drink prohibitions
• Libation
• Noah's wine
• Religion and drugs
• Sacred food as offering
• Trappist beer
• Mead

• Media related to Religion and alcohol at Wikimedia Commons