Negrophobia
Negrophobia (also termed anti-Blackness) is characterized by a fear, hatred or extreme aversion to Black people and Cape Coloureds or Coloureds, and Black & Coloured culture worldwide. Caused amongst other factors by racism and traumatic events and circumstances, symptoms of this phobia include but are not limited to the attribution of negative characteristics to Black and Coloured people, the fear or the strong dislike of Black and Coloured men and the objectification of Black and Coloured women.[1]
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People of mixed-race descent in South Africa are referred to as Coloureds or Cape Coloureds. This term includes individuals with a mixed-race descent that can include African, Asian, and European heritage.[2] In South Africa, the term "Coloured" is considered neutral and is commonly used to refer to individuals who self-identify as such.[3] However, in some Western countries, such as Britain and the United States of America the term "coloured" has a negative connotation and can be seen as derogatory because it was historically used as a means of categorizing black individuals and reinforcing racial hierarchies.[4]
The 1911 census in South Africa played a significant role in shaping racial identities within the country. The enumeration process involved specific instructions for classifying individuals into different racial categories, and the category of "coloured persons" was used to refer to all people of mixed race. This included various ethnic groups such as Hottentots, Bushmen, Cape Malays, Griquas, Korannas, Creoles, Negroes, and Cape Coloureds.
What's particularly noteworthy about the classification of "coloured persons" is that it included individuals of black African descent, commonly known as Negroes. As a result Coloureds or Cape Coloureds, as a group of mixed-race descent individuals, also have black African ancestry and can be considered part of the broader African diaspora.[5]
The racial category of Coloureds is a multifaceted and heterogeneous group that exhibits great diversity. Analogously, they can be compared to the Black American population, which is composed of approximately 75% West African and 25% Northern European ancestry. However, the Cape Coloureds possess an even greater level of complexity due to the presence of Bantu African ancestry in their genetic makeup, which is closely linked to the West African heritage of Black Americans.[6][7]
While Coloureds in South Africa do have black African ancestry, it is important to recognize that they have a distinct identity and experiences that are a bit different from those of black South Africans.
Despite this, there are instances where Coloureds may face discrimination and prejudice based on their mixed-race descent and black African ancestry.
Furthermore, some individuals who hold prejudiced attitudes towards black people may also hold negative attitudes towards Coloureds, viewing them as inferior or less desirable due to their mixed-race heritage.
Definitions
Lexicology
The hybrid word negrophobia consists of two components: negro and phobia. As such, it literally derives from "Fear of black":
- From Spanish and Portuguese: negro, "Black color"
- From Greek: φόβος, phóbos, "Fear of"
Other terms with similar meanings include antiblackness[8] and blackophobia.[9] However, some publishers have discouraged designating individuals as blackophobes or negrophobes and rather highlight the general epithet that is usually applied to racists.[10]
Although melanophobia is sometimes confused with negrophobia, the former term is more commonly applied to situations involving inanimate objects that are very dark or black.[11] Negrophobia is also distinct from Afrophobia, which is a perceived fear of the various cultures and peoples of Africa and the African diaspora irrespective of their racial origin. Unlike negrophobia, Afrophobia is thus essentially a cultural rather than a racial phenomenon.[12]
Debates over definitions
There are differences in the senses that are applied to negrophobes or the noun Negrophobia. Some senses use the term to describe a discriminatory sentiment towards people who may identify with the Black race.[13] Accordingly, the latter sense adopts the notion that a person with Negrophobia believes that his or her race is superior to the Black race through xenophobia.[14] However, an alternative definition stays true to the original clinical meaning of the suffix phobia. Thereby, Negrophobia would be associated not with racism, but rather with those who critically fear the Black race.[15] In July 2010, a segment on Negrophobia was featured on The Rachel Maddow Show on MSNBC.[16][17][18][19][20]
Derogatory terms
Please note that while most of these black slurs listed here are used against Cape Coloureds or Coloureds, not all of them are. However, if a slur is only mentioned as being used against Black people and doesn't mention Coloured people, then it isn't used against Coloured people. Additionally, it is important to note that the term "coloured" is not considered derogatory in Southern Africa, where it refers to a group of people of mixed-race descent. These black slurs have been used for centuries to discriminate and belittle Black and Coloured people.
- Abid / Abeed (plural) - An Arabic term that is used as a derogatory term towards black people. The word "abid" means "slave" in Arabic, and it has been historically used to refer to black people who were enslaved by Arab slave traders. The term "abid" is considered highly offensive, and it perpetuates the racist stereotype that black and coloured people are inferior to other races. It is also used as a derogatory term towards Cape Coloureds or Coloureds.
- Alligator bait / Gator bait - A term that originated in the southern United States and was used to refer to black children who were used as bait to lure alligators. The term is highly offensive and is considered to be racist. The term perpetuates the racist stereotype that black people are less than human and can be used as objects for entertainment. It is also used as a derogatory term towards Cape Coloureds or Coloureds.
- Ape - A term that originated in English and has been used historically as a derogatory term towards black people and Cape Coloureds or Coloureds. The term perpetuates the racist stereotype that black and coloured people are less evolved and are more closely related to apes.
- Aunt Jemima / Aunt Jane / Aunt Mary / Aunt Sally - Names that have been historically used to refer to stereotypical images of black and Cape Coloureds or Coloureds women who were subservient to white people. These images were used in advertising and entertainment, and they perpetuated the racist stereotype that black and coloured people were inferior to white people. The names are considered highly offensive and are now largely seen as examples of racist caricatures.
- Baboon - A term that originated in English and has been used historically as a derogatory term towards black people and Cape Coloureds or Coloureds. The term perpetuates the racist stereotype that black and coloured people are less evolved and are more closely related to baboons.
- Bamboula - A term that originated in French and was used historically to refer to a type of drum that was associated with African music. The term was later used as a derogatory term towards black people and Cape Coloureds or Coloureds, and it perpetuates the racist stereotype that black and coloured people are primitive and uncivilized.
- Bhuti - The term is a Bantu word that is commonly used in South Africa to refer to a younger brother or a close male friend. However, when used in a derogatory manner, it can be used to refer to Bantu men in a demeaning and dehumanizing way. The derogatory use of the term "bhuti" is offensive and reinforces the racist belief that Bantu people are inferior to other ethnic groups. It perpetuates harmful stereotypes about Bantu men and contributes to a culture of discrimination and oppression.
- Bounty bar - A chocolate bar that was named after the HMS Bounty, a British naval ship that was involved in the mutiny of 1789. The name "Bounty" has also been used as a derogatory term towards black people, and it perpetuates the racist stereotype that black people are savages who can be bought or sold. It is also used as a derogatory term towards Cape Coloureds or Coloureds.
- Boogie - The word originates from the African American Vernacular English and is used to describe black people and Cape Coloureds or Coloureds. It is considered derogatory and offensive as it perpetuates negative stereotypes about black and coloured people being lazy, uneducated, or criminal.
- Brillo Pad - A derogatory term for people with coarse or curly hair, often used to describe black people and Cape Coloureds or Coloureds. The term originates from the Brillo brand of steel wool scrubbing pads, which have a similar texture to some types of black and coloured hair.
- Black Buck / Brown Buck / Black Brute / Brown Brute - Derogatory terms used to refer to black and Cape Coloureds or Coloureds men, particularly those who are perceived to be physically strong or sexually aggressive. The terms are considered racist and are used to perpetuate harmful stereotypes about black and brown men.
- Buckwheat - A derogatory term used to refer to black people and Cape Coloureds or Coloureds. It is believed to have originated in the United States during the early 20th century and is derived from the character of the same name in the Our Gang/Little Rascals comedy series. The character was portrayed by a black child actor wearing a wig with exaggerated, curly hair. The term is considered offensive and is used to demean and dehumanize black and coloured people.
- Burrhead / Burr-head / Burr head - A derogatory term used to describe the hair of black people and Cape Coloureds or Coloureds, particularly those with coarse, curly hair. It is believed to have originated in the United States during the mid-20th century and is derived from the term "burr," which refers to a prickly seed pod that sticks to clothing and animal fur. The term is considered racist and is used to mock and belittle the physical appearance of black and coloured people.
- Brownie - A derogatory term used to refer to Cape Coloureds or Coloureds, a group of mixed-race descent in South Africa. The term was used by white people to reinforce racial hierarchies and divide non-white groups against each other. The term is considered offensive and is used to demean and dehumanize coloureds.
- Bushy (s.) / Amadushie, Bushies (p.) - Derogtory terms used to refer to Khoisan people in South Africa. The Khoisan people are an indigenous group of Southern Africa, who are known for their hunter-gatherer lifestyle, unique language, and distinctive physical features such as their epicanthic folds and small stature. These terms are believed to originate from the Dutch word "bosjesman," which means "bush man," and were used by colonial settlers to refer to Khoisan people who lived in the bush or wilderness areas.
- Chocolate face - The term originated in English and is a derogatory term used to refer to black people and Cape Coloureds or Coloureds. It has been historically used to describe individuals with darker skin tones in a demeaning and derogatory manner, implying that their skin colour is somehow inferior to those with lighter skin tones.
- Cioarâ - A Romanian slur used to describe Romani people. It is highly offensive and perpetuates negative stereotypes about Romani people being thieves, beggars, or uneducated.
- Coloured / Colored - In Southern Africa, the term "Coloured" refers to people of mixed-race descent, typically of European and African or Asian ancestry. While the term is considered neutral in this context, it can be seen as derogatory if used to refer to black people or if used in a negative or demeaning way towards Cape Coloureds or Coloureds.
- Coon - The term is a shortened form of "raccoon" and was first used in the United States in the 1830s as a way to refer to African Americans. The term was likely inspired by the stereotypical depiction of raccoons as crafty and mischievous animals. It is a derogatory term that is deeply offensive and racist towards black people and Cape Coloureds or Coloureds, implying that they are primitive and animalistic.
- Crow - The term was used in the United States in the late 1800s and early 1900s as a way to refer to African Americans. It is believed that the term came from the similarity between the colour of a crow and the dark skin of black people and Cape Coloureds or Coloureds. This term is derogatory and racist, suggesting that black and coloured people are less than human and unworthy of respect.
- Czarnuch (masculine) / Czarnucha (feminine) - The term "czarnuch" is a derogatory term in the Polish language that is used to refer to black people and Cape Coloureds or Coloureds. It is believed to have originated from the word "czarny," which means black. The term is deeply offensive and racist towards black and coloured people, implying that they are inferior and unworthy of respect.
- Darkie / darkey / darky - A derogatory term that was commonly used in the United States to refer to black people, particularly those with dark skin. The term is offensive and racist, suggesting that black people are unattractive and inferior because of their skin colour.
- Eight ball, 8ball - The term "eight ball" or "8ball" is a derogatory term that is often used to refer to black people and Cape Coloureds or Coloureds. The term is believed to have originated from the game of pool, where the black ball is known as the "eight ball." This term is offensive and racist, implying that black and coloured people are less than human and worthy of being used as a game piece.
- Eggplant - A derogatory term that is often used to refer to black people and Cape Coloureds or Coloureds. The term is believed to have originated from the colour of eggplants, which are dark purple, similar to the colour of some black and coloured people's skin. This term is offensive and racist, suggesting that black and coloured people are unattractive and inferior because of their skin colour.
- Fuzzy - A derogatory term that is used to refer to black people with afro-textured hair. The term is offensive and racist, suggesting that black people are less than human and unworthy of respect because of their hair texture.
- Fuzzy-Wuzzy - A derogatory term that is used to refer to black people with afro-textured hair. The term is believed to have originated from a British military campaign in Sudan in the late 1800s, where British soldiers encountered Sudanese warriors with afro-textured hair. This term is offensive and racist, suggesting that black people are less than human and unworthy of respect because of their hair texture.
- Gam, Gammat - Afrikaans terms used against black people of Khoisan descent, Cape Coloureds or Coloureds in South Africa. The word "Gam" means "dirty" or "unclean" in Afrikaans, and it is used to insult coloured people, implying that they are unclean and unworthy. The word "Gammat" is the feminine version of the word "Gam," which is used to insult coloured women in particular.
- Golliwogg - A derogatory term that is used to refer to black people and Cape Coloureds or Coloureds, particularly black and coloured children. The term originated from a children's book in the late 1800s and is often associated with a stereotypical image of a black person with large lips, wild hair, and a comically oversized smile. This term is offensive and racist, perpetuating harmful stereotypes about black people.
- Hapsi, Habsi - A derogatory term used in India to describe black African people. It comes from the Arabic word "Habshi," meaning someone from Abyssinia, which was a reference to Black people and Cape Coloureds or Coloureds in East Africa.
- Houtkop - An Afrikaans term that translates to "wooden head." It is a derogatory term used towards black people and Cape Coloureds or Coloureds in South Africa, particularly those who come from rural areas. The term is rooted in the stereotype that black and coloured people are uneducated and unintelligent. The use of this term perpetuates negative stereotypes about black and coloured people and reinforces racial prejudices.
- Hotnot, Hottentot - A derogatory term used against Khoisans and their descendants, black people of Khoisan descent or known as Cape Coloureds or Coloureds. The Khoisan are indigenous people of Southern Africa, and the term "Hottentot" was used by Dutch colonialists to describe them, which means "stutterer" or "stammerer." It was used to insult the Khoisan people, implying that they were less intelligent and less capable than Europeans.
- Jigaboo, Jiggaboo A derogatory term used to describe Black people and Cape Coloured or Coloureds in the US. The term originated from a West African dance called the "jig," and it was later used to describe a stereotypical black and coloured person who was seen as uneducated, lazy and unintelligent.
- Jim Crow - The derogatory term refers to the laws and customs in the US that enforced racial segregation and discrimination against black people from the late 1800s to the mid-1960s. It was named after a white performer who wore blackface and exaggerated Black and Cape Coloured or Coloured stereotypes in his performances.
- Kaffir / Kaffer - A derogatory term used against black people and Cape Coloureds or Coloureds in South Africa. It comes from the Arabic word "Kafir," which means "infidel" or "non-believer," and it was used by white colonialists to dehumanize black and coloured people and justify their exploitation and oppression.
- Macaca, macaque - A derogatory term used against black people in Portugal and some other European countries. It comes from the Portuguese word for "monkey," and it is used to insult people of African descent.
- Malau (s.) / AmaLawu, AmaQheya (p.) - Xhosa words for Hottentot or Hotnot.
- Mammy - A derogatory term used to describe black and Cape Coloured or Coloured women who were employed as domestic workers in the US during the Jim Crow era. The term was popularized by the character "Aunt Jemima" in advertising and was used to depict Black women as happy, subservient and obedient.
- Mau-Mau - A derogatory term used by white settlers in Kenya to describe a militant group of Kikuyu people who fought against British colonialism in the 1950s. The term was used to dehumanize and demonize the Kikuyu people, implying that they were savage and barbaric. It is still used today against any black and Cape Coloured or Coloured person.
- Monkey - A derogatory term used against black people and Cape Coloureds and Coloureds, comparing them to animals and implying that they are less human.
- Mulignan, Mulignon, Moolinyan - Derogatory terms used against black people and Cape Coloureds or Coloureds in Italy and Italian-American communities. The terms mean "eggplant" in Italian.
- Munt - A derogatory term used in South Africa to describe people of black African descent, including Cape Coloureds or Coloureds.
- Nig-nog - A derogatory term used in the United Kingdom to describe black people and Cape Coloureds or Coloureds. The term is believed to have originated in the 19th century, and its exact etymology is unclear. Its use is considered highly offensive and perpetuates negative stereotypes about black and coloured people.
- Negro - A derogatory term used to describe people of black African descent, although it is now considered outdated and offensive. The term comes from the Spanish and Portuguese word for black, and was commonly used in English-speaking countries in the past. Its use is considered insensitive and reinforces negative stereotypes about black people and Cape Coloureds or Coloureds.
- Nigra/Negra (feminine) - A variation of the word "Negro" used to describe women of black African descent, including Cape Coloured or Coloured women. The term is considered outdated and offensive, and its use is now widely discouraged.
- Negro-itis - A derogatory term used to describe black people and Cape Coloureds or Coloureds who are perceived to have a sense of entitlement or who are seen as lazy. The term reinforces negative stereotypes about black and coloured people and perpetuates the idea that they are not as hardworking or deserving as other groups.
- Negro toe - A derogatory term used to describe black and Cape Coloured or Coloured people's feet. The term is considered highly offensive and reinforces negative stereotypes about black and coloured people's physical appearance.
- Porch monkey - A derogatory term used in the United States to describe black people and Cape Coloureds or Coloureds. The term is believed to have originated during the era of slavery, when black people were forced to work on plantations and often took breaks on the porch of their living quarters. Its use is considered extremely offensive and reinforces negative attitudes towards black and coloured people.
- Pickaninny - A derogatory term used against black and Cape Coloured or Coloured children, especially those with dark skin, curly hair, and wide noses. The term is believed to have originated from the word "piccaninny," which was used in West African Pidgin to mean "small child." In the United States, the term was used during slavery and segregation to justify the mistreatment of black children.
- Powder bun - A derogatory term used against black and Cape Coloured or Coloured women who wear makeup, specifically powder on their faces. The term is believed to have originated in the 19th century, when makeup was associated with prostitution and lower-class women. The term has since been used to imply that black and coloured women who wear makeup are trying to be something they are not or are trying to hide their blackness.
- Quashie - A derogatory term that originated in Jamaica and was used against black and Cape Coloured or Coloured people, specifically those who worked on plantations during slavery. The term was used to refer to enslaved people who were seen as lazy, unintelligent, and uncivilized.
- Sambo - A derogatory term for a black person, commonly used in the United States during the Jim Crow era. It comes from a character in the 1899 children's book, "The Story of Little Black Sambo" by Helen Bannerman. The character was depicted as a young Indian boy, but the name was later applied to black and coloured people, reinforcing negative stereotypes. The term is offensive because it reduces black people and Cape Coloureds or Coloureds to a caricature and perpetuates the idea that they are inferior and childlike.
- Sisi - The term is a Bantu word that is commonly used in South Africa to refer to a younger sister or a close female friend. However, when used in a derogatory manner, it can be used to refer to Bantu women in a demeaning and dehumanizing way. The derogatory use of the term "sisi" is offensive and reinforces the racist belief that Bantu people are inferior to other ethnic groups.
- Shine - A derogatory term for a black person that originated in the United States during the early 20th century. It comes from the idea that black people's shoes would shine due to the fact that many worked as shoeshiners. The term is offensive because it reduces black people and Cape Coloureds or Coloureds to a stereotype and implies that their only purpose is to serve white people.
- Smoked Irishman - A derogatory term for a black person, which is based on the idea that black people are so dark that they look like they have been smoked. The term is offensive because it reduces black people and Cape Coloureds or Coloureds to their skin colour and reinforces the idea that they are inferior.
- Sooty - A derogatory term for a black person, which originated in the United Kingdom. The term is based on the fact that chimney sweeps were historically blackened with soot, and many were black. The term is offensive because it reduces black people and Cape Coloureds or Coloureds to a stereotype and perpetuates negative stereotypes.
- Spade - A derogatory term for a black person, which originated in the United States. The term comes from the idea that black people and Cape Coloureds or Coloureds are like garden tools, and is offensive because it reduces black and coloured people to a stereotype and reinforces the idea that they are inferior.
- Spearchucker - A derogatory term for a black person, which originated in the United States during World War II. The term comes from the idea that black soldiers were given spears to use in combat because they were thought to be less intelligent than their white counterparts. The term is offensive because it reduces black people and Cape Coloureds or Coloureds to a stereotype and perpetuates the idea that they are inferior.
- Spook - A derogatory term for a black person, which originated in the United States. The term comes from the idea that black people and Cape Coloureds or Coloureds are scary or spooky, and is offensive because it reduces black and coloured people to a stereotype and perpetuates negative stereotypes.
- Tar baby - A derogatory term for a black person, which originated in the United States. The term comes from the character in the 1880s Uncle Remus stories by Joel Chandler Harris, which featured a doll made of tar. The term is offensive because it reduces black people and Cape Coloureds or Coloureds to a stereotype and perpetuates negative stereotypes.
- Teapot - A derogatory term for a black person, which originated in the United States. The term comes from the idea that black people and Cape Coloureds or Coloureds are shaped like teapots, with a large body and a small head. The term is offensive because it reduces black and coloured people to a stereotype and perpetuates negative stereotypes.
- Thicklips, bootlips - Derogatory terms for black people, which originated in the United States. The terms refer to the full lips that are common among black people and Cape Coloureds or Coloureds, and are offensive because they reduce black and coloured people to a stereotype and perpetuate negative stereotypes.
- Toad - A derogatory term for a black person, which originated in the United States. The term comes from the idea that black people and Cape Coloureds or Coloureds are slimy and unclean, and is offensive because it reduces black and coloured people to a stereotype and perpetuates negative stereotypes.
- Uppity - A derogatory term used to describe black and Cape Coloured or Coloured individuals who are perceived as arrogant or presumptuous in their behavior towards white people. The term has its origins in the American South, where it was often used by white people to put black people "in their place." It was a way to remind black and coloured people of their inferior social status and to discourage them from acting outside of their perceived place in society.
- Uncle Tom - A derogatory term used to describe black and Cape Coloured or Coloured individuals who are perceived as subservient to white people. The term has its origins in the 1852 novel "Uncle Tom's Cabin" by Harriet Beecher Stowe. In the novel, Uncle Tom is a loyal slave who is willing to endure beatings and other forms of abuse in order to protect the white family he serves. Over time, the term "Uncle Tom" became associated with black and coloured people who were perceived as too accommodating to white people and too willing to accept their inferior social status.
Overview
Historical context
In Europe, Negrophobia finds its roots in the 17th century due to its extensive historical colonisation and slavery.[21] According to certain sources, the term Negrophobia would have been forged on the model of the word Nigrophilism, itself first appearing in 1802 in Baudry des Lozières’s Les égarements du nigrophilisme.[21] It further reappeared in January 1927 in Lamine Senghor’s La voix des nègres, a monthly anti-colonialist newspaper. The term was later popularised by Frantz Fanon, especially in his works Peaux noires masques blancs and ''Les Damnés de la Terre''.[21] More recently in 2005, an anti-negrophobia brigade (BAN) was created in France to protest against increasing targeted acts and occurrences of police violence.[21] The latter protest movements notably underwent severe police violence in the Jardin du Luxembourg in Paris during the 2011 and 2013 abolition of slavery commemorations.[21]
Negrophobia and identity
More specifically on Fanon's analysis of Negrophobia, the psychiatrist was the first to introduce the concept of Black Negrophobia, pointing to the hatred of Black people and Black culture by Black people themselves.[1] Indeed, he asserts that Negrophobia is a form of "trauma for white people of the Negro".[22] Equivalent to internalised racism caused by the trauma of living in a culture defining Black people as inherently evil, Fanon emphasises the slight existing cultural intricacies caused by the vast diversity of Black people and cultures, as well as the nature of their colonisation by White Europeans.[1] The symptoms of such Black Negrophobia include a rejection of their native or ethnic language in favour of European languages, a marked preference for European cultures over Black cultures, and a tendency to surround themselves with lighter skinned people rather than darker skinned ones.[1] Similarly, the pattern further includes attributing negative characteristics to Black people, culture, and things. Toni Morrison's novel The Bluest Eye (1970) stands as an illustrative work on the destroying effects of Negrophobia among the Black community on themselves.[23] Indeed, the main character, Pecola Breedlove, through her non-reconciliation with her Black identity, her Black societal indifference and her craving for symbolic blue eyes, presents all the signs of an internalised Negrophobia.[23] She develops an anti-Black neurosis due to her feeling of non-existence both within the White and her own community.[23]
While the latter theoretical framework is academically debated, Fanon insists on the nature of Negrophobia as a socio-diagnosis, thus characterising not individuals but rather entire societies and their patterns.[1] Fanon thereby implies that Negrophobia is a cross-disciplinary area of research, justifying that its analysis and understanding may not be confined to the psychological field.[1]
Negrophobia and law
The notion of involuntary Negrophobia is highly debated in the academic and legal arenas, specifically opposing non instrumentalists and instrumentalists. The formers are favourable to the involuntary nature of a post-traumatic stress disorder, thereby defending the uncontrollable nature of a defendant’s actions.[24] This approach focusses on the personal culpability of the individual defendant,[24] thus disregarding any possible social implications. On the other hand, instrumentalists do consider such broader implications, viewing the law as an object of social change and claiming to promote the general welfare by refusing to recognise legal claims damaging the integrity of the legal.[25] This view criticises non instrumentalists for equating Negrophobia with insanity by allowing a person’s racial fear to legally justify and even excuse violent behaviour.[25] Following widespread claims that sane but guilty defendants may exploit the insanity defence to escape long prison sentences,[26] a similar skepticism with respect to defences invoking Negrophobia would result in significant distrust in the legal and criminal justice system, thereby indirectly destroying the legitimacy of such courts.[26]
Anti-Blackness in Education and Organization Studies.
In response to Black Lives Matter organizing contemporary scholars of Education, Human Resource Development, and Critical Management Studies have begun focusing on anti-Blackness in schools and places of business.[27][28][29][30][31] These efforts build on established critical race discourses in their respective field and incorporate concepts from Afropessimism.[32]
See also
References
- Brooks, Adia A. (2012). "Black Negrophobia and Black Self-Empowerment: Afro-Descendant Responses to Societal Racism in São Paulo, Brazil" (PDF). UW-L Journal of Undergraduate Research. XV: 2. Retrieved 4 May 2020.
- Kline Jr., Hibberd V. B. (1958). "The Union of South Africa". The World Book Encyclopedia. Vol. 17. Chicago, Field Enterprises Educational Corp. p. 8254.
- Stevenson, Angus; Waite, Maurice (2011). "Coloured". Concise Oxford English Dictionary: Luxury Edition. Oxford University Press. p. 283. ISBN 978-0-19-960111-0.
- "Is the word 'coloured' offensive?". BBC News. 9 November 2006. Retrieved 5 June 2019.
- Moultrie, A. T., & Dorrington, R. Used for ill, used for good: A century of collecting data on race in South Africa. pp. 7, 8. Moultrie and Dorrington. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232827270_Used_for_ill_used_for_good_A_century_of_collecting_data_on_race_in_South_Africa
- "The Cape Coloureds are a mix of everything". Discover Magazine. Retrieved 2023-03-02.
- Christopher, A. J. (2002). "'To Define the Indefinable': Population Classification and the Census in South Africa". Area. 34 (4): 401–408. doi:10.1111/1475-4762.00097. ISSN 0004-0894. JSTOR 20004271.
- Rieger, Jeorg (2013). Religion, Theology, and Class: Fresh Engagements after Long Silence. New Approaches to Religion and Power. Palgrave Macmillan US. p. 177. ISBN 978-1-137-33924-9. Retrieved 5 July 2018.
- Afrasia: A Tale of Two Continents – Page 105, Ali A. Mazrui – 2013
- Lincoln: Political Writings and Speeches – Page xxvi, Terence Ball – 2013
- Klaffke, Pamela (2003). Spree: A Cultural History of Shopping. p. 181. ISBN 9781551521435.
- Kivuto Ndeti; Kenneth R. Gray; Gerard Bennaars (1992). The second scramble for Africa: a response & a critical analysis of the challenges facing contemporary sub-Saharan Africa. Professors World Peace Academy. p. 127. ISBN 9966835733. Retrieved 10 December 2015.
- Max Planck Yearbook of United Nations Law – Page 492, Rüdiger Wolfrum – 1999
- Ubuntu, Migration and Ministry: Page 88, Elina Hankela – 2014
- Black Soul, White Artifact: Fanon's Clinical Psychology and Social Theory p 73, Jock McCulloch – 2002
- Maddow, Rachel (July 21, 2010). "Scaring white people for fun and profit". MSNBC.
- "Negrophobia", published by St. Martin's Press and written by Darius James
- Negrophobia and Reasonable Racism: The Hidden Costs of Being Black in America, An academic book written through the New York University press.2
- Negrophobia: A Race Riot in 1906, by Mark Bauerlein with Encounter Press.3
- American Heritage Dictionary 4
- Une Autre Histoire (13 January 2015). "Négrophobie". une-autre-histoire.org. Retrieved 6 May 2020.
- Anthony C. Alessandrini (3 August 2005). Frantz Fanon: Critical Perspectives. Routledge. p. 153. ISBN 978-1-134-65657-8.
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